British support and Arab strategy in capturing Medina| OKWAVE

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With British support, an initial attack led by Hussein's son Feisal was launched against Medina in October 1916; however, the Arabs were repulsed with heavy losses by the Turks, who were heavily-entrenched and armed with artillery, which the Arabs lacked. As the Arab Revolt slowly spread northwards along the Red Sea (ultimately culminating in the seizure of Aqaba), British and Arab strategy for capturing Medina changed, and Faisal and his advisers was determined that the Arabs would gain an advantage by leaving Medina unoccupied; this would force the Turks to retain troops to defend Medina, and to protect the Hejaz Railway, the only means of supplying the city. For this purpose, Nuri as-Said set about creating military training camps in Mecca under the direction of General 'Aziz 'Ali al-Misri. Using a mix of Bedouin volunteers, Arab officers and Arab Ottoman deserters who wanted to join the Arab Revolt, 'Aziz 'Ali created three infantry brigades, a mounted brigade, an engineering unit, and three different artillery groups made up of a patchwork of varying cannon and heavy caliber machine guns. Of his total force of 30,000, 'Aziz 'Ali proposed that it be divided into three armies:

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入院と自動車学校で勉強ができませんでした。テストが間近です。手助けをお願いします。 Among the Arabs, too, Lawrence’s fame had spread.Now every time he rode into an Arab camp the Arabs would fire their rifles into the air and shout over and over,〝Aurens！Aurens！’’They could not say the name properly,but they all knew it was Lawrence they were cheering.The Turks,too,had heard of Lawrence by now,and they wanted him killed or captured.So what Lawrence said happened next might well be true.Lawrence decided to go on a spying trip.Everything went wrong and the Turks caught him. A short way along the Damascus-Medina railway there is a town called Deraa.In the First World War it was an important railway junction,a place where two main lines met.If Lawrence and the Arabs could blow up the track there,it would be a major setback for the Turks.But was this possible？There were a lot of Turkish soldiers in Deraa,and because it was the local capital the Bey（goverment） lived there too.The Bey of Deraa was a tall,heavy man with a thick black mustache.We know from a diary he kept during the war that he had heard of Lawrence and that he had heard of Lawrence and that he had made up his mind to try to capture him.Lawrence believed that the only way to learn for certain whether it was possible to attack Deraa was to go there on a spying mission and see for himself.So he dressed in ordinary Arab clothes and asked an old Arab to go with him.He hoped that the Turks would think that he and the old man were just a son and his father who had come to town to buy something.Forawhile everything went well.No one paid any attention to two Arabs,walking barefoot,their cheap clothes stained by the rain and mud.They went and looked at the railway station,pretending to check the trains.They walked outside the fence,but took careful note of its stores,barbed-wire defenses,and trenches. 入院していたころの範囲です。ノートも次の授業の関係で借りることができませんでした・・・。よろしくお願いします。

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The Battle of Aqaba (6 July 1917) was fought for the Red Sea port of Aqaba (now in Jordan). The attacking forces of the Arab Revolt, led by Auda ibu Tayi and advised by T. E. Lawrence ("Lawrence of Arabia"), were victorious over the Ottoman defenders.Following an unsuccessful attack on Medina, forces of the Arab Revolt under Emir Faisal I were on the defensive against the Ottomans (or Turks). In the spring of 1917, Arab forces moved north to seize the Red Sea ports of Yenbo and Wejh, allowing them to regain the initiative, but neither the Arabs nor their British allies could agree on a subsequent plan of action. The Arabs began a series of attacks on the Hejaz Railway, and contemplated another campaign against Medina, but with British troops stationary in front of Gaza, it seemed they were not in a position to succeed. The Ottoman government had sent Arab divisions of its army, which held many pro-Revolt units, to the front lines, depriving Faisal and his allies of much-needed reinforcements. Lawrence, sent by General Archibald Murray, commander of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, to act as a military adviser to Faisal, convinced the latter to attack Aqaba. Aqaba was a Turkish-garrisoned port in Jordan, which would threaten British forces operating in Palestine; the Turks had also used it as a base during their First Suez Offensive on the Suez Canal in 1915. It was also suggested by Faisal that the port be taken as a means for the British to supply his Arab forces as they moved further north. Though he did not take part in the attack itself (his cousin Sherif Nasir rode along as the leader of his forces), Faisal lent forty of his men to Lawrence. Lawrence also met with Auda ibu Tayi, leader of the northern Howeitat tribe of Bedouin, who agreed to lend himself and a large number of his men to the expedition. Lawrence informed his British colleagues of the planned expedition, but they apparently did not take him seriously, expecting it to fail. The Battle of Aqaba アカバの戦い

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入院と自動車学校で勉強できませんでした。一週間後にテストがあります。お手伝いをおねいがいします。 All the next day Lawrence and the Arabs fired on the Turks,but the Turkish force was large and the battle showed no sigh of ending.Finally Auda decided thet camel charge would settle matters.A camel charge is an amazing sight.To see these big,clumsy,and slow-moving animals you would not believe that they can run very fast when they want to.Imagine five hundred camels racing across the desert toward you,with a bearded Arab with hawk nose and fierce eyes on top of each camels, shouting war cries and firing his rifle,his robes flowing in the wind,his knife on a belt around his waist.The Turkish soldiers broke ranks and fled.Lawrence ,in the second wave of the charge,got so excited that instead of firing his revolver at the Turks,he accidently fired it into his camel’s head,blowing the poor animal’s brains out.The camel dropped dead.Lawrence was flung to the ground and knocked out.When he woke up the battle was over.Three hundred Turks were dead and there were 160 prisoners for the loss of only two Arabs.Now nothing stood in the way of Akaba. More and more Arabs came to join Lawrence on the last days of the march until finally about one thousand men stood outside the walls of the Turkish port.The heat was intense.Food supplies within Akaba were low.The Arabs were in a bloodthirsty mood.Lawrence felt that the Turks would be ready to surrender without a fight,so he sent them a message carried by an Arab under a white flag of truce.But when the Arab got near the walls the Turks shot at him.Next Lawrence sent a message with some Turkish prisoners the Arabs had taken at Aba el Lissan.But the Turks fired at them too.Then a little Turkish prisoner said he knew hot to do it.He took off all his clothes except his boots and walked up to the Turkish lines naked.The Turks could see that he had no weapons hidden on him,so they did not fire at him.

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入院と自動車学校で勉強できませんでした。テストが間近です。お手伝いお願いします。 They told him to tell Lawrence and the Arabs that if help did not come in two days they would surrender.This was not good enough for Lawrence.The Arabs were impatient for victory and Lawrence was certain that they would not wait.They would storm Akaba and in the fighting some of them would be killed.So this time he went with the naked soldier to see the Turks.Lawrence asked to see an officer.He explained the situation to him.He said he would not be able to control the Arabs’ temper much longer.If the Turks surrendered now,they would not be killed but would be sent as prisoners to Egypt.The officer soon brought a reply. The Turks would surrender at dawn.They did.Lawrence and the Arabs rode into Akaba in triumph.They had won a great victory.But now they were all threatened with starvation.Every day there were four thousand mouths to feed.They had to start killing the camels for meat. Lawrence was exhausted.His head still ached from the fall from his camel.But he knew that he had to get food for everyone as quickly as he could.So he set off on his camel to ride across the Sinai desert to the Suez Canal.This was a journey of 250 miles,but Lawrence did it without stopping.It was a remarkable feat.For two days and two nights he ate and slept on his camel’s back.At Ismailia,on the banks of the great canal,he reported the capture of Akaba to a Royal Navy admiral he met on the railway station.The admiral,delighted with Lawrence’s success,agreed immediately to send a warship to Akaba with food and ammunition.News of the victory soon spread.People in Cairo began to ask who was this man Lawrence,who spent all his time with the Arabs.Even the French,who knew that Lawrence did not like them,gave him a medal for his bravery.And the new British general,Edmund Allenby,say that Lawrence and the Arabs might be more important than anyone realized.He called Lawrence to see him and gave him ￡200,00 in gold sovereigns to pay more Arab recruits.

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入院と自動車学校で勉強出来なくて、テストが5日後にあります。お力をお貸しください。 Lawrence got he belts of explosive ready,but before he could begin to fix them,there was a sudden clatter of noise from high above him.One of the machine gunners had dropped his rifle. The Turkish sentry shouted a challenge,then fired his rifle at the place from where the noise had seemed to come.The other Turks came running out of the guard tent.Soon asmall battle was raging.The Arabs carrying the explosive belts knew that if a bullet hit one of the belts,it would go off and blow them to pieces.So they dumped the explosive into the gorge and ran.Lawrence followed them and within a few minutes they were all trotting away on their camels,the raid afailure. But even so in had caused confusion.The Turks hated raids like this.They did not know where the Arabs would strike next,so they had to keep lots of troops everywhere.They could not stop the trains altogether because their souldiers in desert posts depended on them for supplies.The one thing they felt sure of was that Lawrence would attack only trains.He would not risk a full-scale battle.Lawrence soon proved them wrong. If you look at the map you will find,at the top of an inlet off the Red Sea,a port called Akaba. In 1917 the Turks held it. they felt secure from an attack by Lawrence and the Arabs because it was a well-fortified port and they would be able to beat off any attempt to land troops from the landward side would be impossible because hundreds of miles of desert lay between Akaba and the nearest Arab forces.Lawrence knew that the Turks would think this,so he and the Arabs decided to do the impossible.They would march across this desert and attack Akaba from the rear. Lawrence,Auda, and thirty camel riders armed with rifles set out to persuade the desert tribesmen to join them.Lawrence carried twenty thousand gold sovereigns in his saddlebags to pay recruits.The arabs tribesmen were happy to see Lawrence and Auda.Their arrival was the occasion for a feast

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The threat never materialised, however, as the Germans were unable to complete the railway lines that were needed to support their troops in the field and the Yilderim Army Group was redirected to the Palestine front. The threat of the Yilderim Army Group spurred the British to make another attempt to take Ramadi. Control of the town was also sought in order to deny the Turks access to fresh produce from the area, which was illicitly smuggled out of the British-controlled areas, and cut the desert road to Karbala. In mid-September 1917, General Maude ordered General Harry Brooking, commander of the 15th Indian Division, to undertake the operation. The division joined Brigadier General A. W. Andrew's 50th Indian Brigade at Falluja and set up forward positions at Madhij, east of Ramadi, by 20 September. The Turks were dug in along a line of sand dunes known as the Muskaid Ridge, about 6.5 km (4 miles) to the west of Madhij. Their main defensive positions were about 1.5 km (1 mile) further west, just south of Ramadi itself. Brooking decided to mount a frontal attack from the south while using the 6th Indian Cavalry Brigade to cut off the garrison's line of retreat from the west. This would pin the Turks against the river, as there was no bridge at Ramadi. The Turks had assumed that the British would repeat the tactics they used in July and organised their defences accordingly to cover an arc running from the east to the south of the town. They expected to be able to use the road to the west to retreat if necessary. Since the July attack, the Turkish garrison had been substantially reinforced and now numbered 3,500 infantry, 500 artillery and 100 cavalry, with 10 artillery guns. Brooking carried out an elaborate series of false preparations to bolster the Turks' belief that the British would once again seek to advance along the banks of the Euphrates. A pontoon bridge was built at Madhij on 28 September, troops were encamped along the river, and friendly Arab tribes were recruited to move supplies to the riverbank opposite Ramadi. Brooking's order to commence the attack was also deliberately vague, so as to conceal the true plan of attack from any Turkish spies in Madhij.

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The Sykes-Picot agreement, where France recognised Arab independence, had been signed after the letter to King Hussein: "It is accordingly understood between the French and British Governments... that France and Great Britain are prepared to recognise and uphold an independent Arab State or Confederation of Arab States in the areas A. and B. marked on the annexed map under the suzerainty of an Arab Chief." Hence France, argued the British, by signing practically recognised the British agreement with King Hussein, thus excluding Damascus, Homs, Hama, and Aleppo from the blue zone of direct French administration in the map attached to the agreement showed that these cities were included in an independent Arab State. Pichon said France could not be bound by what was for them an unknown agreement and had undertaken to uphold "an independent Arab State or Confederation of Arab States", but this did not mean the Kingdom of Hejaz and if they were promised a mandate for Syria, it would only act in agreement with the Arab State or Confederation of States.

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The British in the sultan's capital found themselves faced by several thousand Ottoman troops and twenty guns. In addition, Arab tribesmen had rallied by the thousand to help the Ottomans. The British were backed by the few hundred men of the sultan of Lahij's native army. The Arab camp-followers of the Aden detachment deserted them in a body at the most critical hour, taking with them all their camels. Fighting opened on the evening of Sunday, 4 July. The Ottoman forces made several attacks against the British line, but each was driven off. Although after the battle the efforts of the Royal Artillery drew a tribute from General Shaw, the superior Ottoman artillery had kindled fires in different parts of Lahij, and the British were in danger of being outflanked and cut off by the Arab tribal horsemen. The sultan was killed with many of his men. When the main Aden Column never arrived, the British withdrew on 5 July with the loss of three officers wounded, but the main loss was not so much in men as in prestige.

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But London ordered Cox not to issue his proclamation, and came out with its own proclamation asking Arab leaders to aid the British administration. At the same time, the Indian colonial government had different ideas. After all, they had been the prime movers behind Mesopotamia in the first place. The British government in India wanted this new area placed under its direct control. This power struggle led to the creation of the Mesopotamian Administration Committee, under the leadership of Lord Curzon. Its main task was to determine who would govern the Basra and Baghdad provinces. Its ruling was a British, not Anglo-Indian, administration for Basra and an Arab authority for Baghdad.

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入院と自動車学校のため、勉強できませんでした。 5日後にテストがあります、お手伝いをお願いします。 Most of the time these Arabs led a frugal life,eating little.But when travelers arrived,the Arab tradition of hospitality meant that a big dinner party would be held.The Arab women would spend most of the day cooking for their party.There would be only one course,a huge copper dish filled to overflowing with mutton and rice.This would be placed,still steaming,in the middle of the circle of men.The cooks would pour pot after pot of hot mutton fat in to the dish.The men would roll up the sleeve of the right arm as far as the elbow and then dip into the mutton and rice.The idea was to make little ball of rice and meat and fat and then flick this into your mouth with your thumb,much like firing a marble.Lawrence always waited before starting to eat because the mutton fat was so hot it could scald your fingers.When the men had finished ,the women and children came to eat.Then it was the dogs’turn,until nothing was left.This happend in every camp until Lawrence hoped never to see mutton again. After the feasting came talk of the mission,the attack on Akaba.At first the Arabs would say that this was impossible,but slowly,listening Lawrence and Auda,they would change their mind.By the time Lawrence was ready to cross the desert for the attack,there were enough Arabs with him to make the chances of success reason ably good.But before any battle there was the desert,one of the hottest and driest in the world,to cross.It was a terrible journey.Each Arab carried his water bag and a few pounds of flour to make a rough kind of bread in theashes of thecampfire.Lawrence carried the same ,plus a few bars of chocolate.Ar each well the men and the camels would drink deeply and then go for dats on just a few sips of water.The band frew to about five hundred men, and when they found their way to Akaba blocked by aTurkish force at a place called Aba el Lissan,they felt strong enough to attack.They surrounded the Turks during the night.

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On 30 September 1918, supporters of the Arab Revolt in Damascus declared a government loyal to the Sharif of Mecca. He had been declared 'King of the Arabs' by a handful of religious leaders and other notables in Mecca. On 6 January 1920 Faisal initialed an agreement with Clemenceau which acknowledged 'the right of Syrians to unite to govern themselves as an independent nation'. A Pan-Syrian Congress meeting in Damascus had declared an independent state of Syria on the 8th of March 1920. The new state included portions of Syria, Palestine, and northern Mesopotamia. King Faisal was declared the head of State. At the same time Prince Zeid, Faisal's brother, was declared Regent of Mesopotamia. The San Remo conference was hastily convened. Great Britain and France and Belgium all agreed to recognize the provisional independence of Syria and Mesopotamia, while claiming mandates for their administration. Palestine was composed of the Ottoman administrative districts of southern Syria. Under customary international law, premature recognition of its independence would be a gross affront to the government of the newly declared parent state. It could have been construed as a belligerent act of intervention due to the lack of any League of Nations sanction for the mandates. In any event, its provisional independence was not mentioned, although it continued to be designated as a Class A Mandate.

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The Germans had maintained control of the lake since the outbreak of the war, with three armed steamers and two unarmed motor boats. In 1915, two British motor boats, HMS Mimi and Toutou each armed with a 3-pounder and a Maxim gun, were transported 3,000 miles (4,800 km) by land to the British shore of Lake Tanganyika. The British captured the German ship Kingani on 26 December, renamed it HMS Fifi and with two Belgian ships, under the command of Commander Geoffrey Spicer-Simson, attacked and sank the German ship Hedwig von Wissmann. The MV Liemba and the Wami, an unarmed motor boat, were the only German ships left on the lake. In February 1916 the Wami was intercepted and run ashore by the crew and burned. Lettow-Vorbeck had the Königsberg gun removed and sent by rail to the main fighting front. Graf von Götzen was scuttled in mid-July after the Belgians made bombing attacks by floatplanes loaned by the British before Belgian colonial troops advancing on Kigoma could capture it; Graf von Götzen was refloated and used by the British.

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"French intentions in Syria are surely incompatible with the war aims of the Allies as defined to the Russian Government. If the self-determination of nationalities is to be the principle, the interference of France in the selection of advisers by the Arab Government and the suggestion by France of the Emirs to be selected by the Arabs in Mosul, Aleppo, and Damascus would seem utterly incompatible with our ideas of liberating the Arab nation and of establishing a free and independent Arab State. The British Government, in authorising the letters despatched to King Hussein [Sharif of Mecca] before the outbreak of the revolt by Sir Henry McMahon, would seem to raise a doubt as to whether our pledges to King Hussein as head of the Arab nation are consistent with French intentions to make not only Syria but Upper Mesopotamia another Tunis. If our support of King Hussein and the other Arabian leaders of less distinguished origin and prestige means anything it means that we are prepared to recognise the full sovereign independence of the Arabs of Arabia and Syria. It would seem time to acquaint the French Government with our detailed pledges to King Hussein, and to make it clear to the latter whether he or someone else is to be the ruler of Damascus, which is the one possible capital for an Arab State, which could command the obedience of the other Arabian Emirs."

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Given the eventual defeat in 1918 and subsequent partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, the agreement effectively divided the Ottoman's Arab provinces outside the Arabian peninsula into areas of future British and French control and influence. An "international administration" was proposed for Palestine. The British gained control of the territory in 1920 and ruled it as Mandatory Palestine from 1923 until 1948. They also ruled Mandatory Iraq from 1920 until 1932, while the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon lasted from 1923 to 1946. The terms were negotiated by the British and French diplomats Mark Sykes and François Georges-Picot. The Russian Tsarist government was a minor party to the Sykes–Picot agreement, and when, following the Russian Revolution, the Bolsheviks published the agreement on 23 November 1917 "the British were embarrassed, the Arabs dismayed and the Turks delighted."

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The Battle of Langemarck took place from 21–24 October, after an advance by the German 4th and 6th armies which began on 19 October, as the left flank of the BEF began advancing towards Menin and Roulers. On 20 October, Langemarck, north-east of Ypres, was held by a French territorial unit and the British IV corps to the south. I Corps (Lieutenant-General Douglas Haig) was due to arrive with orders to attack on 21 October. On 21 October, it had been cloudy and attempts to reconnoitre the German positions during the afternoon had not observed any German troops movements; the arrival of four new German reserve corps was discovered by prisoner statements, wireless interception and the increasing power of German attacks; 5 1⁄2 infantry corps were now known to be north of the Lys, along with the four cavalry corps, against 7 1⁄3 British divisions and five allied cavalry divisions. The British attack made early progress but the 4th army began a series of attacks, albeit badly organised and poorly supported. The German 6th and 4th armies attacked from Armentières to Messines and Langemarck. The British IV Corps was attacked around Langemarck, where the 7th Division was able to repulse German attacks and I Corps was able to make a short advance. Further north, French cavalry was pushed back to the Yser by the XXIII Reserve Corps and by nightfall was dug in from the junction with the British at Steenstraat to the vicinity of Dixmude, the boundary with the Belgian army. The British closed the gap with a small number of reinforcements and on 23 October, the French IX Corps took over the north end of the Ypres salient, relieving I Corps with the 17th Division. Kortekeer Cabaret was recaptured by the 1st Division and the 2nd Division was relieved. Next day, I Corps had been relieved and the 7th Division lost Polygon Wood temporarily. The left flank of the 7th Division was taken over by the 2nd Division, which joined in the counter-attack of the French IX Corps on the northern flank towards Roulers and Thourout, as the fighting further north on the Yser impeded German attacks around Ypres. German attacks were made on the right flank of the 7th Division at Gheluvelt. The British sent the remains of I Corps to reinforce IV Corps. German attacks from 25–26 October were made further south, against the 7th Division on the Menin Road and on 26 October part of the line crumbled until reserves were scraped up to block the gap and avoid a rout. Langemarck ランゲマルク

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In early June 1916, the Sharifian Army of Sherif Hussein, Amir of Mecca, launched attacks on the Ottoman garrisons in Mecca and Jeddah in the south western Arabian Peninsula. Jedda fell quickly allowing the Royal Navy to use the port. Fighting in Mecca lasted three weeks. A large Ottoman garrison held out at Taif until late September when they capitulated, while Sherif Hussein's third son Feisal attacked the Ottoman garrison at Medina. The British were keen to extend the Arab Revolt by destabilizing sections of the Ottoman Empire through which the Hejaz Railway ran north – south, from Istanbul to Damascus and on to Amman, Maan, Medina and to Mecca. The railway, built with German assistance to carry pilgrims, was not only important for Ottoman communications but contained solidly-built stone station buildings which could form defensive positions. With the balance of power in northern Sinai moving in favour of the British, the Sherif was encouraged to seek support for his revolt from as far north as Baalbek, north of Damascus. In London, the War Office, hoping to foment unrest throughout the Ottoman Arab territories, encouraged Murray's plan to advance to El Arish.

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The battle of Yanbu was an Ottoman attempt to recapture the city of Yanbu.The Battle on Yanbu began on December 1, 1916, when Fakhri Pasha, with 2 brigades invaded the outskirts of the city. The Ottomans initially had repelled the Arabs from strategic points in the city. Within a couple of days Pasha controlled all routes in and out of the city. The Arab soldiers in the city begin constructing a makeshift airstrip for use by British aircraft. More Arab and British reinforcements arrive and strengthen defenses in the city, 5 British Navy ships also arrive to help in the defense of the city. By December 9, Arab counter-attacks open up the routes to the city, and flights from the HMS Raven II severely attack Ottoman columns. Because of the Navys presence in the ocean off of Yanbu, Pasha calls off all advances on the night of December 11/12. Due to logistical errors, and counterattacks from the Arabs, the Ottomans start the retreat to Medina on January 18, 1917, thus, ending the Recapture of Yanbu.

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British artillery fired a preparatory bombardment from Polygon Wood to Langemarck but the German guns concentrated on the Gheluvelt Plateau. The British artillery was hampered by low cloud and rain, which made air observation extremely difficult and shells were wasted on empty gun emplacements. The British 25th Division, 18th Division and the German 54th Division took over by 4 August but the German 52nd Reserve Division was not relieved; both sides was exhausted by 10 August. The 18th Division attacked on the right and some troops quickly reached their objectives but German artillery isolated the infantry around Inverness Copse and Glencorse Wood. German troops counter-attacked several times and by nightfall the copse and all but the north-west corner of Glencorse Wood had been recaptured. The 25th Division on the left flank advanced quickly and reached its objectives by 5:30 a.m., rushing the Germans in Westhoek but snipers and attacks by German aircraft caused an increasing number of casualties. The Germans counter-attacked into the night as the British artillery bombarded German troops in their assembly positions. The appalling weather and costly defeats began a slump in British infantry morale; lack of replacements concerned the German commanders. Plan of attack Ypres area, 1917 The attack was planned as an advance in stages, to keep the infantry well under the protection of the field artillery. II Corps was to reach the green line of 31 July, an advance of about 1,480–1,640 yd (1,350–1,500 m) and form a defensive flank from Stirling Castle to Black Watch Corner. The deeper objective was compensated for by reducing battalion frontages from 383–246 yd (350–225 m) and leap-frogging supporting battalions through an intermediate line, to take the final objective. On the 56th Division front, the final objective was about 550 yd (500 m) into Polygon Wood. On the right, the 53rd brigade was to advance from Stirling Castle, through Inverness Copse to Black Watch Corner, at the south western corner of Polygon Wood, to form a defensive flank to the south.

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Hipper opened fire at 08:00 on 16 December 1914, eventually killing 108 and wounding 525 civilians. British public and political opinion was outraged that German warships could sail so close to the British coast, shelling coastal towns with impunity; British naval forces had failed to prevent the attacks and also failed to intercept the raiding squadron. The British fleet had sailed but the German ships escaped in stormy seas and low visibility, assisted by British communication failures. The Germans had made the first successful attack on Britain since the 17th century and suffered no losses but Ingenohl was unjustly blamed for missing an opportunity to inflict a defeat on the Royal Navy, despite him creating the chance by his offensive-mindedness. The British had let the raid occur and appeared to the public to have been surprised (having been forewarned by decoded wireless messages) and then to have failed to sink the German raiding force on its way back to Germany. In 1921, the official historian Julian Corbett wrote, Two of the most efficient and powerful British squadrons...knowing approximately what to expect...had failed to bring to action an enemy who was acting in close conformity with our appreciation and with whose advanced screen contact had been established. — Strachan The British had escaped a potential disaster, because the British 1st Battlecruiser Squadron (Vice-Admiral Sir David Beatty) was unsupported by the 2nd Battle Squadron (Vice-Admiral Sir George Warrender), when it failed to make contact with the raiding force. The worst British failure was in the exploitation of the intelligence provided by the code breakers at Room 40 (Sir Alfred Ewing), that had given the British notice of the raid. Some intercepts decoded during the action had taken two hours to reach British commanders at sea, by when they were out of date or misleading. News of the sailing of the HSF was delivered so late that the British commanders thought that the Germans were on the way, when they were returning. At sea, Beatty had sent ambiguous signals and some commanders had not used their initiative. On 30 December, the commander of the Home Fleet, Admiral Sir John Jellicoe, gave orders that when in contact with German ships, officers were to treat orders from those ignorant of local conditions as instructions only but he refused Admiralty suggestions to loosen ship formations, for fear of decentralising tactical command too far.

British support and Arab strategy in capturing Medina

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British support and Arab strategy in capturing Medina

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和訳をお願いします。

英文を訳して下さい。

和訳をお願いします。

和訳をお願いします。

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