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The Importance of Relative Self-Sufficiency in Developing Civilizations
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「相対的自給自足は世界中のあらゆる発展途上の文明に特有で、現在アマゾン川流域とニューギニア高地の遠隔地域において成し遂げられている。」 「盗みにせよ交易にせよーある帝国がより多くの金、銀及び交易商品を獲得できればできるほど、その帝国は豊かになった、そして豊かになった帝国はその分より強国となり、同様のぶんどり品を求める他の帝国に対して最もよく自国を守ることができたのである。」 参考になれば幸いです。
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The Ottoman High Command failed to make up the losses of 1915. The war in Gallipoli was using all the resources and manpower. The IX, X and XI Corps could not be reinforced and in addition to that the 1st and 5th Expeditionary Forces were deployed to Mesopotamia Campaign which did not show signs of ending soon. Ottoman High Command recognizing the dire situation on other fronts, decided that this region was of secondary importance. As of January 1916, Ottoman forces were 126,000 men, only 50,539 being combat soldiers. There were 74,057 rifles, 77 machine guns and 180 pieces of artillery. Many of the guns which were supposed to defend the city had been moved to Gallipoli to counter the British forces. The guns that were left in the region were older weapons and not in very good condition. The soldiers were not in good condition. They suffered from inadequate food as was typical of many Turkish soldiers at that time. Ottoman forces in the Caucasus Campaign were big on paper, but not on the ground. Another source claim that 78,000 troops were in this region, perhaps associating the number of rifles to actual soldiers.
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あるブログで、子どもの自殺についての話をしていて、私が I wish I could hug every child who cries for help. と書いたところ、You never know, that's all it may take. という返事をもらいました。 you never know は「先のことはわからない」 という意味だとわかりましたが(最初は「あなたにはわからない」かと思いました）、that's all it may take がわかりません。 また、別の人から I wish there were more people out there like you, and could help those poor people. I wish I could help more, but sometimes you just don't see it coming. という返事をもらいました。なんとなく全体の意味はわかりますが、 there were more people out there と you just don't see it coming のあたりがよくわかりません。 どなたか教えていただけませんか。よろしくお願いします。
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German New Guinea consisted of north-eastern New Guinea and several nearby island groups that are now part of Papua New Guinea. First established in 1884, the main part of the colony was Kaiser-Wilhelmsland, in north-eastern New Guinea. The islands to the east were known as the Bismarck Archipelago and consisted of Neu-Pommern (now New Britain) and Neu-Mecklenburg (now New Ireland). With the exception of German Samoa, all German islands in the Pacific were administratively part of German New Guinea: the German Solomon Islands (Buka, Bougainville and several smaller islands), the Carolines, Palau, the Marianas (except for Guam), the Marshall Islands and Nauru. Although a relatively minor colony, it covered an extensive land area, totalling around 249,500 square kilometres (96,300 sq mi). While the western half of New Guinea had been administered by the Netherlands since 1828, the eastern half was not annexed by any European power until the 1880s. In 1883, fearful of growing foreign influence—particularly the influence of Germany—the British colony of Queensland annexed the south-eastern part of New Guinea, against the wishes of the British government. This initiated German interest in the remaining third of the island and on 3 November 1884, the German flag was raised over Kaiser-Wilhelmsland, the Bismarck Archipelago (formerly New Britain) and the German Solomon Islands. On 17 May 1885, the German Emperor granted an Imperial charter to the newly founded Neuguinea-Kompanie (New Guinea Company) for this annexation, which was further extended to the Solomon Islands on 13 November 1886. On 1 April 1899, the German government took formal control, establishing a protectorate. A treaty with Spain, signed on 30 July, ensured German control over several other island groups in the Pacific, and these were added to the protectorate of German New Guinea. The economic life of German New Guinea's small population of European and Asian settlers, as well as that of its Melanesian population, relied heavily on the export of copra and the import of goods and services. It remained a modest outpost, and by August 1914 only 1,273 Europeans lived in the colony, while there was also a small but significant number of Japanese, Chinese and Malays. Following Britain's declaration of war on Imperial Germany on 4 August 1914 at the outbreak of the First World War, Australia and the other members of the British Empire were automatically involved, with Prime Minister Joseph Cook stating on 5 August that "...when the Empire is at war, so also is Australia."
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On May 6, the Russian advance began through the Tortum Valley towards Erzurum. The Ottoman 29th and 30th Divisions managed to stop this assault. The Ottoman X Corps counter-attacked the Russian forces. But on the southern part of this advance, Ottoman forces were not as successful as they have been in the north. On May 11 the town of Manzikert had fallen. On May 17, Russian forces entered the town of Van. Ottoman forces continued to be pushed back. Supply lines were being cut, as the Armenian rebellions were causing additional difficulties behind Ottoman lines. The region south of Lake Van was extremely vulnerable. The Turks had to defend a line of more than 600 kilometers with only 50,000 men and 130 pieces of artillery. They were clearly outnumbered by the Russians. The region was mountainous, thus difficult to defend.
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From 10 to 16 June the French fired 497,122 shells with less effect than the 265,430 rounds fired from 3 to 9 May. The Germans had managed to fire a heavy artillery barrage of c. 100,000 shells, which stopped the French infantry attack and prevented troops moving up in support. Attempts to repeat the surprise of 9 May by ruses failed and a German counter-barrage had begun in no man's land within two minutes of the French infantry advance. The experience of the attacks on 16 June demonstrated that the effect of counter-battery fire, neutralising fire and changes in the pattern and timing of artillery-fire made no difference if the German wire was uncut when the infantry advance began. German field defences were dug in increasing quantity and complexity during the offensive and German artillery became much more active, as more guns and much more ammunition arrived at the battlefront. A considerable tactical advantage had been gained by the French, who had regained 6 sq mi (16 km2) of ground. The new German defences around the area were on ground overlooked from the Lorette Spur, were more costly to defend and made Vimy Ridge more vulnerable to attack. The apparent lost opportunity on 9 May, when Vimy Ridge was captured in the first rush, led the French army commanders to conclude that more of the same could achieve a breakthrough if better organised, which formed the basis of the planning for the autumn offensives in Artois and Champagne. Pétain wrote that the attack on 9 May showed that a breakthrough was possible and that it could be achieved by careful preparation of communication trenches, jumping-off trenches and assembly positions, if the German defences were carefully reconnoitred and sufficiently bombarded by artillery. Since the defenders could close a gap quickly it would be necessary to maintain momentum, with reserve troops following up the attacking force closely. Attacks in open country were preferable to being bogged down in fighting for obstacles like villages and woods and the attack should be on a broad front, to allow centres of resistance to be outflanked and to disperse German fire power over a wider area. German analysis of the battle was collected in a memorandum of June 1915 and led to renewed emphasis on infantry shelters, deep enough to be invulnerable to heavy artillery and to increase the number of defensive positions behind the front, which would slow an advance and delay subsequent attacks, by forcing the attacker to move artillery into range. On 7 June a copy of Note 5779 was captured on the Artois front and the local corps commander ordered that intensive digging be undertaken and stipulated that reserve positions were to be as solidly built as front line defences.
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At the moment big structural shifts, such as the growth of China and India, are influencing prices less than one might think. The two Asian giants are demanding more food (and more types of food), but so far their own farmers have largely satisfied that, so they have not needed to trade much (though that would change dramatically if China were to import wheat this year). どなたかお願いしますm(__)m
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This new food security was a key element in the development of modern civilization, leading as it did to more stable societies in which part of the population could engage in nonagricultural activities, such as trade and commerce. ldid が何を指しているのかつかめません。 leading asから先を解説を含め、訳を教えてください。 英検読解問題の中にあった一文です。 よろしくお願いします。
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project imperial authorityはどのような日本語にしたら適切でしょうか。 than, say, the British,…ここのsayのあるなしの違いはなんでしょうか。 Maritime empires and contiguous, land-based empires sometimes exhibited very similar motives, aggression, and techniques of rule, but there were also major and recurring differences between them. Most obviously, and as J.R. Seeley perceived, maritime empires were usually more short-lived and vulnerable than contiguous empires. It was always easier to construct and consolidate rule over one single continuous stretch of territory than to be dependent on ships and have to project imperial authority over vast oceans and seas. This was why the Russian empire, the Ottoman empire and above all the Chinese empire proved far more durable than, say, the British, Spanish or Portuguese empires.
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The forts were not linked and could only communicate by telephone and telegraph, the wires for which were not buried. Smaller fortifications and trench lines in the gaps between the forts, to link and protect them had been planned by Brialmont but had not been built by 1914. The fortress troops were not at full strength in 1914 and many men were drawn from local guard units, who had received minimal training, due to the reorganisation of the Belgian army, which had begun in 1911 and which was not due to be complete until 1926. The forts also had c. 30,000 soldiers of the 3rd Division to defend the gaps between forts, c. 6,000 fortress troops and members of the paramilitary Garde Civique, equipped with rifles and machine-guns. The garrison of c. 40,000 men and 400 guns, was insufficient to man the forts and field fortifications. In early August 1914, the garrison commander was unsure of the forces which he would have at his disposal, since until 6 August, it was possible that all of the Belgian army would advance towards the Meuse.
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Restraints and qualifications notwithstanding, a daimyo was generally speaking lord of all he could survey-and often a good deal more-from the top of his castle’s keep. It would be more accurate, if less colorful, to say that han bureaucracy was lord of all it could survey. For, in domain affairs as much as in their relations with the shogun, the daimyo were ‘’victims’’ of bureaucratization; most of the authority they had wielded at the beginning of the seventeenth century as personal rulers quickly passed to councils of hereditary ‘’clan elders’’ (karo). Such councils were the local equivalents of the shogun’s senior and junior councils, and under their general control the routine administration of the domains was carried on by a small number of high-ranking officials (bugyo) and deputies (daikan or gundai) in charge of groups of villages. daikan or gundai 代官あるいは郡代
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