The Unpleasant Stereotypes of Old People
- Stereotypes associated with old people are often negative, portraying them as sick, stupid, or dirty.
- Old people's positive contributions to society are often overlooked or ignored.
- Challenging these stereotypes about aging is important, although there is still progress to be made.
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The stereotypes associated with old people are particularly unpleasant. They are often regarded as sick, stupid, or even dirty. Because a minority of old people become confused, or suffer from mental disorders such as Alzhimer's disease, it is assumed that any old person is likely to become mentally incapacitated -although, in fact, the evidence is very different. Because of this, the positive contributions which older people can make to social events and processes are often overlooked, or simply ignored. Recently, a number of organizations and individuals have begun to challenge these stereotypes about ageing, and there is some indication that attitudes are beginning to change. But there is still a long way to go. Insight The negative view that we have of old people is like other stereotypes, having a small grain of truth in some cases but a lot of exceptions. Interestingly , although old people also share this negative stereotype, they almost always see themselves as one of the exceptions. So who is left to fit the stereotype? RETIREMENT AND RESPONSIBILITY Some people who reach reach retiring age, though, still hold to the old negative ideas about retirement. Sometimes they feel that society has simply thrown them away, even though they are as fit as ever. But sometimes they interpret any aches and pains as being evidence that they are becoming old and useless, so they stop doing activities which would help them to keep fit. Anyone will grow infirm if they do nothing all day but sit in the house and watch TV- muscles need exercise to keep toned, and a healthy retirement means an active one. Also, feeling socially useless is a major source of stress and helplessness. Without another source of self-esteem, such as a hobby or voluntary work, people can become extremely depressed, and appear to give up on active living.
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高齢者に関連した固定観念は、特に不快です。 彼らは、病気であるとか、ばかであるとか、汚いとさえしばしば考えられています。 少数の高齢者が混乱したり、またはアルツハイマー病などの精神障害に罹るので、お年寄りは誰もが精神的に無能力になりそうだなどと思われます。-しかし、実際は、証拠は非常に違っているのです。 このため、高齢者が社会的な行事やそのプロセスに果たすことができる積極的な貢献は、しばしば見落とされるか、または単に無視されます。 最近、多くの組織や個人は、高齢化に関するこれらの固定観念に挑戦し始めました。そして、態度が変化し始めているという兆しもあります。 しかし、まだ、長い道のりがあります。 洞察 私たちが高齢者に持っている否定的な考えは、他の固定観念でも似ています。それらには、ごく少数の真実もありますが、多くの例外もあります。 面白いことに、高齢者もこの否定的な固定観念を共有していますが、彼らは、自分自身を例外の1つだと、たいていみなしています。 それでは、固定観念に合うのに残っているのは誰なのでしょうか？ 引退と責任 しかし、退職年齢に達する人の中には、引退についての古い否定的な考えに、まだこだわる人もいます。 たとえあいかわらず健康であるとしても、時々、彼らは社会が単に彼らを捨てたと感じます。 しかし、彼らが、苦しみや痛みを年をとって役に立たなくなっている証拠であると、解釈する時もあります。そして、彼らは、健康を保つのに役立っている活動をすることを止めてしまいます。 一日中何もしないで、家に座って、テレビを見ていれば、誰でも虚弱になります、- 筋肉は調子を保つには運動を必要とします、そして、好ましい引退は活発な引退を意味するのです。 また、社会的に役に立たないと感じることは、ストレスと無力感の主要な原因です。 例えば趣味またはボランティア活動の様な、自尊心のもう一つのもととなるものがなければ、人々はとても落胆して、活発な生活をあきらめるように見える場合もあるのです。
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SOCIAL LABELLING Dyson(1980) interviewed a large number of people about their experiences of retirement, and challenged the idea that people see it as a fair exchange. Dyson's respondents saw it as fair for old people in general, but not in their own personal cases. They felt that, for the most part, sosiety had thrown them on the junk heap too early, when they were still perfectly capable of making an active and useful contribution to society. But they did think it was probably fair for other old people, and for old people in general. Dyson's research gave some interesting hints about the emergence of a new perspective on ageing, which developed during the 1980s. This view sees the lower visibility of older people in society as a product of old people are very strong-even though most of us are personally acquainted with individuals who don't fit those stereotypes at all. But it is very difficult for an individual to berak through the social stereotyping and be regarded as an intelligent person with something useful to contribute, because too often they are seen as someone who is old, and therefore useless. Or they think this is how they will be seen, and so they don't bother trying.
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SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY In 1975, Dowd proposed a different way of explaining this question. Dowd proposed that retirement is actually a sort of social contract that the person makes with society.They obtain increased leisure time, and an 'honourable discharge' from the idea that all responsible members of society ought to work as hard as possible - the Protestant Work Ethic-and in return, they give up their involvement in how society's affairs are run. This social exchange is seen, according to Dowd, as a fair trade, both by society and by old people. More recently, however, people are showing sings of being less prepared to accept this type of social contract. After all, we live much longer now than we did when retirement was first introdused, and we keep our health for longer, too; so it is much more practical for people to continue to take an active part in society. Among business and professional people, it is not at all uncommon for retirement to signal the beginning of a second career, and a much more independent one that allows them to use their experience, such as working as a consultant. In other groups of society, too, people are beginning to see retirement as an opportunity to do new things. Organizations like the University of the Third Age encourage retired people to develop new hobbies and pursue new interests, and are becoming more popular and successful all the time. Many psychologists now take the view that successful retirement is all about making sure that you acquire new social roles, to replace the ones that you have lost through work, and activities of this sort are exactly the way that people do that. Insight Having responsibilities and being needed seem to be the core of successful retirement. That can take many forms: some people feel needed by their gardens, and devote much of their time to taking care of them; while others take on more social responsibilities.
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Insight Ritirement was originally introduced to give people a couple of year's rest before death. But people died younger in those days:nowadays, we can expect a healthy 20 or 30 years of life after retirement. Using that time constructively is one of the personal challenges of modern society. DISENGAGEMENT THEORY The first psychological theories about retirement tended to take a rather negative position. Cummings and Henry(1961) saw retirement as a gradual process of separating off from society. Old people might be numerous, but they were less visible than younger people, and less involved in social activities. Cummings and Henry saw this as part of a natural mechanism, similar to a weakend animal withdrawing from its herd to die. Cummings and Henry put forward a biological explanation for this. They proposed that, as people grow older, there is a kind of inherited biological mechanism which encourages them, gradually, to withdraw from society. They have fulfilled their evolutionary function by bringing up families and helping their offspring to survive and now, Commings and Henry argued, evolution has no place for them. As a cosequence, they become less and less involved in social affairs, leaving decision-making and social organization to younger people and become increasingly withdrawn into their own lives.
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Other people may make more dramatic changes in their lives-perhaps moving to start a new life in a different country, or a different town, and taking up an entirely new occupation. Making such dramatic changes sometiimes doesn't work very well, but often people report increased feelings of well-being and confidence, and more positive life experiences. As we have seen, we continue to grow and develop throughout our lives, and the mid-life crisis can be seen as away of taking control of that growth and channelling it into new directions. Insight Some researchers see the mid-life cresis as a myth, arguing that people can engage in life changes at any time in their lives. That is true, but if we look at people who have re-evaluated their lives and make dramatic changes as a result, there is a majority in their 40s and 50s. Retirement Another major transition, of course, is retirement. In earlier times, the period of retirement used to be a brief interlude before old age and death. But in modern living, it has become quite defferent. Changes in diet, lifestyle and general health mean that most people continue to live an active, productive life for a long period after they finish formal working-as long as 30 years, or if they have taken early retirement, even 40. This period is very nearly as long as many people's working life, so the idea of retirement as a'restful interlude' isn't really very practical. Instead, life span psychologists nowadays see retirement as a way of developing in new and different ways, that weren't possible under the constraints of working life.
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This rather gloomy process is known as disengagement, based on the idea that there is an innate, biological tendency to disengage from society with age, rather like an animal creeping off to die by itself. It reflects a tendency of psychologists at that time to look for biological explanations for all human behavior. But there are many problems with this model. For one thing, the relative lack of social involvement of older people isn't anything like an animal creeping away to die, because the period of being 'an old person' or a pensioner is so very long. Nowadays, it isn't uncommon for people to live for 30 years or more after they have retired, and that's quite different from a couple of days of being ill and weak before dying-the normal state of affairs among wild animals. Activity theory That type of explanation also ignores the social factors involved in retirement. An alternative explanation for why older people don't seem to take as active a part in society as they might was put forward by Havinghurst, in 1964. Having hurst attributed it to the fact that older people have relatively few opportunities to play meaningful social roles in society. When someone is active and working, they play a large number of different social roles. These include various roles at work as well as roles to do with the family. In other words, as Hvinghurst put it, their role-count is high. But when someone retires from work, their role-count drops dramatically, because all the social roles that they played that were relevant to work -even ones as simple as being a commuter- vanish. All that is left are social roles to do with family and home. In other words, Havinghurst was arguing, people becomes less visible when they retire simply because they don't have as many opportunities to play a part in everyday social living. And this has personal consequences, as well as social ones, because people can easily come to feel apathetic and useless as a result. The way to counteract this, Havinghurst argued, is for people to replace their lost social roles deliberately, by adding new ones such as joining clubs and societies for older people, or working for organizations like Oxfam, which employ people over conventional retirement age. keeping up one's role-count, according to Havinghurst, is the way to ensure a positive experience of old age.
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There is some evidence that these improvements in the characteristics of elders have resulted in more positive views of aging. Tibbitts claimed that during the past 30 to 40 years, U.S. society has moved from holding negative stereotypes of old people to holding positive views in which elders are seen as being able to contribute to the quality of life for themselves, their communities, and society as a whole. Schonfield even argued that the assumption of negative attitudes toward old people is a "social myth" perpetuated by the gerontological literature. We will be examining these attitudes in derail in Chapter 2, but there does appear to be a substantial shift from negative to positive attitudes. The improvements in the physical, mental,social, and economic characteristics of elders have been so marked, and there have been so many programs and services developed for elders only, that many have begun to criticize these programs as discrimination in favor of the aged, or positive ageism. We will be discussing examples of positive ageism throughout this book; but the ones that have drawn most criticism so far are the Medicare program and some features of the Social Security System, such as the automatic cost of living increases in benefits and the tax-exemption of Social Security benefits for most elders. Perhaps these programs have been criticized the most because they involve the most money. Critics are beginning to argue that since elders are no longer deprived economically and since they are now much better off mentally, physically, and socially than they were in the past, it is no longer necessary or fair to continue the enormous expense of these special supports and programs available only to elders. Some argue that the way to reduce positive ageism is to make these supports and programs available to all ages on the basis of need. For example, they recommend that the national health insurance, which only elders now enjoy, be extended to all ages. It is clear that positive ageism is becoming an important issue and promises to become even more important as we are faced with more older people and more expensive programs for "seniors only."
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suggestible=被暗示性、という心理学用語ですm(_ _)m We are suggestible,ready to take ideas from others and make them our own. Suggestbility descnbes why people believe something that never happened. They become convinced because they are told about an event. They see it in movies,and they hear about it. So they combine theae thoughts into false memories―――but not real ones. Psychologists believe that many childｈｏｏｄ memories are created by parents for their children. They tell the child that something happened: "Remember when we went to the seaehore？' And the child collects beach and vacation ideas into a memory. Propaganda is delibetately telling people ideas that you went them to believe. Advertising is another form of suggesting to people,and people of all ages tend to believe advertising. All of us are suggestible; children are particularly so.
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People who take this view have been shown to be musch more likely to die in the first few years of retirement than those who take a more positive view. It seems that they find it much harder to find anything worth living for, because they feel so useless. This also helps to explain why women live loger than men (although there are other factors to be considered too). Women who are past retiring age now, grew up in a culture in which the home was considered to be a woman's primary responsibility. Even after they have retired, that responsibility still remains, so they still have something in their lives to be involved with. But men of the same age were usually brought up to believe that their primary responsibility was to work and be the breadwinner for the family. That responsibility vanishes with compulsory retirement and this can be emotionally devastating. Even people who have looked forward to retirement can find that, after the first few months, and they can become very depressed even, sometimes, to the point where they give up trying to live. This is why it is so important for retired people to make sure that they have some other interest in their life, and more than just one if at all possible. Many retired people take up another responsibility where they can still feel needed, such as voluntary work. Gardening is particularly popular, because a garden needs to be looked after-it can't be neglected or it will quickly turn wild. So gardeners know that their efforts are necessary and worthwhile. Some people develop hobbies such as travelling, or learn a new sport, such as golf or bowls. All these are ways for people to develop other sources of self-esteem, to compensant for being without paid employment.
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1 Formerly, we used to be less careful about cleanliness, but recently, our cities have become so crowded that there must be rules for keeping order and cleaniness. 2 The people who painted these animals were artists of feeling. They worked with primitive tools and simple colors, but they left proof that great art doesn't grow only from a high degree of civilization. 3 England is a very old country. She has many old ways and customs that have developed over the years till they have become very complicated. Her language has come to have so many words that not half of them are used today. お願いします！
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The mid-life crisis One of the more popular ideas in recent years is that of the mid-life crisis. In many societies, adults simply work from the time that they are grown (or in some cases before) until they become too old. But in modern Western societies, it is no longer the case that we stay doing the same job throughout our woking lives. Temporary work, redundancies, adult re-training schemes and a greater emphasis on job satisfaction mean that many people hit a period in their 40s or 50s when they being to re-evaluate their lives, and decide that they want to do something which is more personally meaningful for them. Sometimes, this crisis simply takes the form of the person looking for different job. But in the modern world, such decisions usually mean re-training, and some people go back into full-time education to achieve this. Universities have growing numbers of numbers of adult students, as do colleges and training schemes, and even people who left school feeling that they were too 'thick' to gain qualifications find that this is not so, and that they can learn as effectively as anyone else.
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