The Many Hats of the Vizier: A Look into Ancient Egyptian Government
- The vizier in ancient Egypt was a crucial figure responsible for various tasks, from overseeing construction projects to managing records and legislation.
- They served the king, the gods, and the people, ensuring the implementation of laws, providing offerings, and protecting the welfare of all citizens.
- The vizier had numerous subordinates, each with their own unique titles and responsibilities, contributing to the efficient functioning of the government.
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お願いします (6) The vizier was a man who wore many hats (or, in at least two cases, she was a woman who wore many hats). As "Overseer of Works," the vizier was in charge of all of the king's engineering projects. He saw to it that men and materials were on site to build monuments, tombs, and temples, to repair dikes, dig canals, and dredge waterways. As "Keeper of the Seal," the vizier was responsible for the records, for marriage contracts, wills, deeds to property, court transcripts, and keeping a head count of cattle and people. His duties were endless. One vizier didn't exaggerate when he wrote, "I spent many hours in the service of my lord." (7) The vizier served the king, the gods, and the people. An 18th-dynasty scribe writes that the vizier Did what the king loves: he raised ma'at to its lord.... reporting daily on all his effective actions.... Did what the gods love: he enforced the laws and laid down rules, administered the temples, provided the offerings, allotted the food and offered the beloved ma'at.... Did what the nobility and people love: he protected both rich and poor, provided for the widow without a family and pleased the revered and the old. (8) All this work was too much for one person. Many officials reported to the vizier. And each of them had a title, usually with the name "overseer." There was the "Overseer of the Double House of Silver" (the treasurer), the "Overseer of the King's House" (the royal steward), and there was even the "Overseer of the Royal Toenail Clippings" (no explanation necessary). The officials who came in contact with the king personally could add yet another name to their title that meant, "Known to the King" (an addition the Toenail Clipping official most likely deserved).
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(6) 主席大臣は、多くの帽子をかぶった男性でした。（または、少なくとも2つの事例では、多くの帽子をかぶった女性でした） 「仕事の監督」として、主席大臣は王の土木計画の全てを担当していました。 彼は、記念碑、墓、神殿を建設し、堤防を補修し、運河を掘り、水路を浚渫する（さらう）ために人員と材料が現場にあるように取り計らいました。「証明の管理者」として、主席大臣は、諸記録、結婚契約、遺言、財産の証書、裁判記録、牛と人々の数を管理することに対して責任がありました。 彼の任務は、終りがありませんでした。 ある主席大臣が次の様に書いた時、誇張ではありませんでした、「私は、多くの時間を陛下への奉仕に費やしました。」 (7) 主席大臣は、王、神、人民に仕えました。 第18王朝の書記は、高官は、 王が愛することを行った： 彼は、支配者にマアト（平和）もたらした .... 毎日、彼のすべての効果的な行動を報告した .... 神が愛することを行った： 彼は法律を施行し、規則を制定し、神殿を管理し、供え物を行い、食物を割り当て、愛されるマアトを提供した .... 貴族と人民が愛することを行った： 彼は富める者と貧しい者両方を保護した、家族のない未亡人を扶養し、尊敬されるべき人々や老人を喜ばせた。 (8) これほどの仕事は、1人の人間には手に負えませんでした。 多くの役人が、主席大臣に報告しました。 そして、彼らのめいめいには、称号があり、たいてい「監督」と言う名前が付いていました。 「銀の２棟続きの家の監督」（会計係）、「国王の家の監督」（王室の執事）がありました、そして、「王の足の爪の監督」（説明不要）さえありました。個人的に王と接触のある役人は、彼らの称号にさらに別の名前を加えたかもしれません、その意味は、「国王に知られし者」（足の爪を切る役人に付けられる追加の名前に多い）でした。 ☆PCが修理から戻りました。体調が、まだ、万全ではないので、少しずつ元のペースに戻ればと思っています。
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お願いします (9) Originally the job of vizier was given to the sons of the king, but by the New Kingdom any official could rise to the position. It was possible for an ambitious commoner to become vizier, and it was possible for a vizier to become king. In times of turmoil, when weak kings ruled, it was the vizier particularly talented vizier might serve more than one kingship. This had the advantage of making the royal changeover a smooth one. (10) One of the vizier's primary jobs was to uphold justice. Ancient justice doesn't sound like justice at all to us. It sounds brutal. Because tomb images paint a picture of life the way Egyptians hoped it would be in the afterlife, popular impressions of ancient Egypt are rose colored. No one likes to commemorate their failures, especially on beetles and certainly not on their tomb walls. Not only that, Egyptians believed anything written came true. Believing that, one would surely be very careful what they wrote. Egyptian life was not the idyllic paradise so many would like to believe. It had a dark side. (11) In Amenhotep's time, the top 5 percent of the population controlled the wealth of Egypt. At the head of it all, of course, was the king. Ranked below him were the vizier and several hundred families who ran the country as priests and overseers. Just below these elite families was a growing upper-middle class of educated people. And below them was the bulk of the population―people who were tied to the land, illiterate and unskilled. As the middle class grew, it became more and more worried about protecting its wealth. Punishments for robbery became more severe.
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お願いします (4) The mere mention of a name can be significant. In Year 10, a scarab was distributed announcing the arrival of a foreign princess to join Amenhotep's harem. But even on this scarab commemorating another woman, Queen Tiy's name is the name most closely linked to the king. Putting their names together clearly announces to the world her position as first queen. The last scarab, put out in Year 11, confirms their close relationship. It describes how a devoted Amenhotep III orders a lake made for his queen, Tiy. The lake was more than a mile long and a quarter of a mile wide. Some scholars estimate it may have been dug in just 15 days. "His Majesty celebrated the feast of the opening of the lake" by sailing witg his queen on the royal barge named his favorite name―the Dazzing Sun Disk. (5) Amenhotep the Magnificent was a very lucky king. He came to the throne when Egypt's treasury bulged with surplus harvests, the spoils of war, and goods from grade missions. And although the king would take sole credit for the country's good fortune, the man responsible for keeping things running smoothly was the vizier. Next to the king, the vizier was the most powerful person in Egypt. He, too, had many names, or titles. He was known as "Second to the King" and "Heart of the Lord" and "Eyes and Ears of the Sovereign." It was his job to keep law and order. He was in charge of taxes, all the records, troop movement, and even keeping track of the level of the Nile. The governors of every district reported to the vizier and the vizier reported to the king.
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お願いします。 Chandragupta's most important weapon was not a war elephant,or even an army.It was his adviser,a clever and ambitious man named Kautilya.As a young man,Kautilya was an adviser to a king.He tried to convince the king to rule his people with knowledge and wisdom instead of ay force.Kautilya claimed that“a king who observes his duty of protecting his people justly and according to law will go to heaven,whereas one who does not protect them or inflicts unjust punishment will not.”The king refused and had Kautilya thrown out of his kingdom.From the gate,the king called to him,asking what good his knowledge was now. Kautilya swore he wouldn't cut his hair until he proved that knowledge was stronger than physical force.He wrote a book that explained his ideas called the Arthashastra,which means“The Book of Wealth and Power.”Kautilya also found a young prince who was willing to take his advice.The prince's name was Chandragupta Maurya. Chandragupta was an excellent student.Not only did he quickly defeat Kautilya's first boss,the king who had thought knowledge was useless,but he founded the Mauryan Dynasty,India's first centralized government.With kautilya's help,Chandragupta made many improvements to his empire,making it attractive to local rulers and their people.
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お願いします。 Today when archaeologists dig up the bodies of pyramid builders it is clear that many survived serious injuries thanks to Imhotep and his long list of cures. But many did not. And, during the Old Kingdom, life everlasting was not for the common man. He could only hope to play his part in the cycle of life and death by building a tribute to his king and in doing so add to the grandeur of Egypt.
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お願いします。 He told his people that he wanted them to live in a way that would lead to an“increase of their inner worthiness.”Ashoka also promoted the teachings of the Buddha and sent missionaries,including his son and his daughter,to lands as dar away as Sri Lanka so that his people would not make the same mistakes he had.As he said,“All men are my children.As for my own children,I desire that they may be provided with all the welfare and happiness of this world and of the next,so do I desire for all men as well.” As part of his reforms,Ashoka banned the sacrifice of animals.This confused and angered many of his people,especially the Brahmins who made their living by performing animal sacrifices.The Brahmins were powerful enemies,break away from the Mauryan Empire after Ashoka's death.The last Mauryan ruler was assassinated in 185 BCE by one of his generals－who was,not so coincidentalky,a Brahmin.Although other kings would follow,no ruler would be strong enough to unite the many different people of the subcontinent into a single political state for 1,600 years.
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お願いします (1) Ptolemy XII was pharaoh of Egypt, the wealthiest country in the Mediterranean world. Ptolemy loved to party─he was called “The Flute Player” because he was so fond of music. But Ptolemy was not just a playful fellow. He was also a troublesome one, so troublesome that his own people wanted him out. They booted him from power in 58 BCE and put his eldest daughter, Berenice, on the throne instead. (2) Ptolemy fought back. He traveled to Rome and bribed the general Ptolemy to support him against Berenice. Ptolemy took troops to Egypt, defeated Berenice's supporters, and returned the playboy king to his throne. In gratitude, Ptolemy named Ptolemy as legal guardian to his eldest son. Ptolemy then gave orders for Berenice to be beheaded. (3) Who was this man who ordered his own daughter's death? (4) Ptolemy XII was actually a Greek. His long-ago ancestor, the first Ptolemy, had served as a general under Alexander the Great, who, in 331 BCE, had conquered a huge empire─including Egypt. When Alexander died, his three top generals divided the empire among themselves. The one who chose Egypt made himself its king and called himself Ptolemy I. By the time Ptolemy XII came to the throne, his family had ruled Egypt for almost 250 years. But they still spoke Greek and considered themselves part of the Greek world. (5) Although Ptolemy had executed his eldest daughter, there was another whom he especially loved─a bright, lively girl named Cleopatra VII. The king seems to have found her the most interesting of all his children. He proclaimed her a goddess when she was about four years old.
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お願いします! Sometime during the sixth century BCE,a prince named Vardhamana was born in northern India.His father was a Kshatriya and his mother's family controlled much of what is now Nepal and Eastern India.As the son of a powerful ruler,he lived alife of luxury.Wealth and pleasures surrounded him.He married and had a daughter,but when he was 30 years old,he began to feel bored and trapped by his life and all of his things.He decided to leave the palace and,after tearing out his hair in five handfuls,he began to wander the land,meditating,and living off the food that people gave him. He traveled into faraway forests,where he met holy men and women who,like him,disliked the violence and greed of ordinary life.Together they looked for a better way to live.In time,Vardhamana found out about a holy man who had lived hundreds of year before,in about 800 BCE.This man,whose name was Parshvanatha,taught that as long as you did not lie,steal,own more than you needed to survive,or kill anything,your life would be pure and you would be freed from having to be born yet again. Vardhamana began to follow these teachings,living only off the charity that people gave him.Sometimes people beat and abused him,but he stuck to his beliefs.Finally,after 12 years,6 months and 15 days,he was able to conquer his earthly desires.He no longer cared about fancy food,fashionable clothes,or even his family and friends.He had finally reached a state called Enlightenment－the burden of always wanting stuff didn't weigh him down anymore.People called him Mahavira,“the great hero.”He taught the four teachings of Parshvanatha,plus one more: celibacy.Total celibacy was a tough one,since if no one had children,people would die out. So,many people who followed the teachings of Vardhamana gave up worldly pleasures after they had finished raising a family.
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お願いします。 (7) On the road leading to Abydos, there was a stela, which is a slab of rock with inscriptions on it. The stela tells the story of King Neferhotep's concern over the spirit of the god Osiris, who lived in the statue, which lived in the shrine, which lived in the innermost room inside the temple at Abydos. According to the stela, King Neferhotep "desired to see the ancient writings." The ancient works were kept by the priests, "the real scribes of hieroglyphs, the masters of all secrets." King Neferhotep told the priests who watched over the ancient records that he planned a "great investigation" into the proper care of the statue of Osiris. The priests replied, "Let your majesty proceed to the house of writings and let your majesty see every hieroglyph." (8) King Neferhotep studied the ancient writings in the library. He learned how the gods were cared for from the beginning of time. He learned exactly what rituals pleased the gods. He decided that he should go to Abydos himself to explain to the priests what he had learned. King Neferhotep sent a messenger ahead telling the priests to bring the statue of Osiris to meet his royal barge on the Nile when he landed. (9) When King Neferhotep arrived near Abydos, the priests met him. The statue of Osiris had traveled with them in its shrine. The shrine had been placed in a cabin on a boat modeled after the boat that the Egyptians believed the gods used to navigate the stars. The boat rested across poles shouldered by a procession of priests. (10) On the seven-mile journey from the Nile to the temple, King Neferhotep was entertained by the priests, who acted out the Legend of Osiris. We know bits and pieces of the legend from inscriptions on the tomb walls and from songs such as the Great Hymn to Osiris. The most complete version of the legend, however, was written much later, probably in the first century CE, by the Greek historian Plutarch. The legend has been told in many ways. This is one version:
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お願いします (1) Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus were two Roman brothers who fought and died for the same cause. They even died the same way, murdered in violent stredt brawls. But the two Gracchi were very different in age and personality. Plutarch, the Greek writer who brought so many Romans to life through his biographies, describes them:“Tiberius, in his looks...and gestures...was gentle and composed. But Gaius was fiery and passionate.” When Tiberius gave a speech, he spoke quietly and never moved from one spot. But Gaius was like an actor. When he spoke to the people, he“would walk about, pacing on the platform. And in the heat of his orations, he would throw his cloak from his shoulders.” (2) The Gracchi brothers were noblemen whose family was well known in Rome. Their father had served two terms as a consul, the highest office in Rome. Their mother, Cornelia, was the daughter of the general Scipio Africanus, who had defeated Rome's great enemy, the Carthaginian general Hannibal. (A King of Egypt once proposed marriage to Cornelia, but she turned him down.) As children of such distinguished parents, the Gracchi brothers had not only social rank but also plenty of money. Still, they devoted themselves to improving the lives of the poor. (3) Tiberius and Gaius entered politics in difficult times. The Roman Republic was in trouble. Like a teenager who grows tall “overnight,” Rome had grown dramatically during the Punic Wars, from 264 to 146 BCE. And although 118 years is a long time for a person, it's a very short time for a city or empire. Rome entered the war years as a small city-state. It ended them as the ruler of the Mediterranean, controlling all of Italy, with conquered lands stretching from Africa and Spain to Greece. The once-poor farming community had mushroomed into a giant whose military conquests poured masses of gold, grain, and slaves into Italy.
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お願いします。 The richer the country, the more powerful its leader―and Egypt was becoming very rich indeed. The king became as distance and as "imperishable" as the stars―a god-king on earth, and in death truly divine. He was responsible for the stability, the order, the balance―ma'at. The simple tombs lined with brick and topped with a flat rectangular stone that had buried royalty in the past were no longer grand enough. What would the people think? King Djoser wanted something that showed Egypt and the world just how powerful he was―showed this world and the next. He was fortunate enough to have a true genius for an architect―an architect capable of envisioning (and building) a tomb worthy of a god-king's passageway to the afterlife: a stairway to heaven. The architect's name was Imhotep and he built the first pyramid. King Djoser must have traveled from the capital city of Memphis to the burial grounds at Saqqara now and again to inspect Imhotep's progress. King Djoser and Imhotep would have entered through a narrow passage positioned to capture the sun's first rays at daybreak. There were many false entrances along the nearly 20-foot-high wall surrounding the burial grounds, but only one way inside. They would have passed under the stone roof at the entrance carved to look like split logs and then through two giant doors permanently flung open. What did King Djoser think the first time he inspected the work site? How did he feel when he walked between the two parallel lines of stone columns carved to look like reeds bound in bunches? At the far end, the columns were placed closer and closer together to give the illusion of an even longer passageway. It must have seemed to him to stretch forever. This was no brick-lined hole in the ground. The burial complex was as big as 24 soccer fields.
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