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The Gracchi Brothers: Two Roman Heroes Who Fought and Died for the Same Cause
- Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus were two Roman brothers who fought and died for the same cause. They even died the same way, murdered in violent street brawls. But the two Gracchi were very different in age and personality. Plutarch, the Greek writer who brought so many Romans to life through his biographies, describes their contrasting traits.
- The Gracchi brothers were noblemen from a prestigious family in Rome. Despite their social status and wealth, they dedicated themselves to improving the lives of the poor. Their father had served as a consul, and their mother was the daughter of a famous general. They refused offers of luxury and focused on social reform.
- Tiberius and Gaius entered politics during a time of turmoil in the Roman Republic. Rome had experienced significant growth and expansion during the Punic Wars, transforming from a small city-state into a dominant empire. The Gracchi brothers saw the inequalities and injustices within society and worked towards creating change.
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お願いします (12) No Roman official could be brought to trial while still in office. Tiberius's enemies planned to attack him as soon as his term ended. But he shocked them by announcing his plan to run for re-election. This wasn't supposed to happen. Tribunes were supposed to serve for one year only. Many aristocrats believed that the plebs would soon proclaim Tiberius kind. Would a tyrant once again rule Rome? (13) A brawl broke out in the election assembly and Tiberius was killed in the street fighting that followed. For the first time in centuries, violence had entered Roman politics, and there it stayed until the fall of the Republic. (14) Tiberius had challenged the power of the Senate and won─even though he died in the process. His land reform had become law. A committee soon set to work distributing state-owned lands to the poor. Tiberius's brother Gaius was a member of that committee. In 123 BCE─ten years after Tiberius's death─Gaius followed in his brother's footsteps and was elected tribune. (15) Gaius was a true revolutionary, even more than Tiberius had been. The younger Gracchus was a great orator, and he pushed through some important reforms. His grain law, for example, kept the price of grain low enough that ordinary citizens could afford to buy bread for their families. (16) Like his brother, Gaius fought against the power of the nobles. He changed the jury system so that when senators were tried in the courts for corruption, the jurw would include some men who weren't members of the Senate. This change made it harder for corrupt senators to get away with their crimes. Although Gaius was re-elected, opposition to him grew among Rome's nobility. And like Tiberius, Gaius met his death in a street battle during his second term in office.
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お願いします (17) Gaius had fought for the rights of Rome's Italian allies, saying that they deserved citizenship. The allies agreed. They had helped Rome to conquer the Mediterranean and yet they didn't have the rights that Roman citizens enjoyed. In 90 BCE, more than thirty years after Gaius's death, Rome's Italian allies rebelled. (This revolution is usually called the Social War, but its other name, the War of the Allies, describes it better.) The non-Roman Italians established their own capital and issued coins showing the Italian bull goring the Roman wolf. The war came to an end when Rome granted citizenship to all free, male inhabitants of Italy. (18) Although the Gracchi brothers had made some progress toward their goals, neither had solved the problems of the poor. Much of the distributed land was soon bought up by the wealthy. The poor lost ground, sliding back to where they had been before the reforms. When the Gracchi's reforms failed, the poor people of Rome became even more dissatisfied. It was as though the taste of hope had made them impatient for the feast they believed should be theirs. In the years that followed the deaths of the Gracchi, a new group of politicians appeared in Rome: the populares. Like Tiberius and Gaius, the populares spoke for the common people. These politicians played an important role in the conflicts that ended the Roman Republic.
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お願いします (21) Augustus was a hard-working emperor. He traveled to many of the provinces under his care, but he was sickly and didn't expect to live very long. After his military campaign in Spain, Augustus returned to Rome and, in 23 BCE, became quite illand began thinking about a successor to follow him as Rome's ruler. His first choice had been his nephew Marcellus, but Marcellus had died young─not long after he had married Julia, the emperor's only daughter. (22) Julia played the key role in her father's search for a successor. After Marcellus died, she had to marry again, to a man of her father's choice. For her next husband, Augustus chose his general Agrippa, his closet friend and advisor. Although Julia was much younger than Agrippa, she dutifully married him, and the couple had five children. Then Agrippa died. (23) Although Augustus adopted his young grandsons as his heirs, he still needed a husband for Julia to protect the boys in the event of his own death. So he forced his stepson Tiberius to divorce his wife, even though Tiberius loved her very deeply. (He used to follow his former wife on the streets, weeping.) The marriage between Julia and Tiberius was a disaster: Julia was unfaithful, and Tiberius went into exile on the Greek island of Rhodes. Augustus was forced to banish his own daughter from Rome for her crime of adultery. (24) Julia must have spilled many tears over her father's marriage choices for her─especially the last one. She hated Tiberius, and he felt the same way about her. Even so, she would never have questioned her father's right to select her husbands. This was a parent's duty, especially if dad happened to rule the Roman Empire.
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お願いします (22) Caesar then restored Cleopatra to her throne and defeated her brother in battle. On his way back to Rome, Caesar passed through Asia. There, he squashed a rebellion in Asia Minor (modern Turkey). In a letter to a friend, he made light of the victory. The letter had only three words: “Veni, vidi, vici.” (“I came, I saw, I conquered.”) Plutarch says that this brief message matched “the sharpness and speed of the battle itself.” Caesar's fans later made placards with these three words written on them, which they carried in his triumphal procession into Rome. (23) When Caesar returned to Rome, he was proclaimed dictator. Then he began the work of healing Rome's terrible war wounds. He gave 100 denarii to every citizen and pardoned his own enemies, even those who had supported Pompey against him, including Cicero and Brutus. (Caesar was especially fond of Brutus. In his youth, Caesar had been in love with Brutus's mother, and he always looked out for her son. Brutus did not return the favor.) (24) During four years of almost absolute power, Caesar passed many laws to control debt, reduce unemployment, and regulate traffic in Rome. He levied taxes on foreign imports to boost Rome's economy. He put unemployed Romans to work building a new Forum and a large public building named in his family's honor: the Basilica Julia. He planned the first public library and built embankments along the Tiber to protect the city against floods. He revised the old Roman calendar, replacing it with the one that we use today, beginning with January. (25) Julius Caesar was perhaps the most extraordinary of all ancient Romans─a senator, military leader, and dictator of Rome. But he was also a poet, a brilliant historian who wrote about his military victories, and the only orator of his day who could compete with Cicero. His personal charm brought him the loyalty of men and the love of women.
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お願いします (7) Tiberius was elected a tribune of the people in 133 BCE. This office was first established to protect the plebeians, but later tribunes used it to advance their own careers. And as soon as Tiberius took office, he set to work for the rights of the plebes. The aristocrats in the Senate claimed that he was interested only in his own glory, but Tiberius denied it. He said that a trip through northern Italy had showed him how desperate the peasants really were. “The men who fight and die for Italy have only air and light. Without house or home, they wander with their wives and children in the open air.... They fight and die for the luxury and riches of others.” Tiberius insisted that Rome should give the land it gained through war to the poor. Conquered territory became state land. Technically, it belonged to Rome, but if wealthy citizens paid a small tax, they were allowed to farm it as their own. In this way most of the conquered territory passed into the hands of those who needed it least─the rich. Some aristocrats, including many senators, got tens of thousands of acres in this way. They used slave labor to work the land and made huge profits. (8) Tiberius made up his mind to change this law. He proposed that no one─no matter who his ancestors were─should be allowed to keep more than 300 acres of state land. The rest should be given to the poor. Once the homeless had land, he reasoned, they would be able to support themselves. They would no longer roam the cities in angry, hungry mobs. And, as landowners, they would be eligible to serve in the army. This would help the people, help the army, and help Rome─a “win” for everyone. But most of the senators stood against Tiberius, and it's easy to see why. His proposed law would rob them of the huge profits that they had enjoyed for so long.
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お願いします (6) On March 15, the day known in Rome as the Ides of March, Caesar went to a meeting of the Senate. As usual, he had no bodyguards. On the way, a soothsayer─a “truth teller” who can tall the future─stopped him with a warning: “Caesar, beware the Ides of March.” (The Romans called the middle day of the month the “Ides”; it usually fell on the 15th.) The dictator ignored him and walked on. But when he arrived at the meeting place, a group of senators─mostly old friends and men he had pardoned and promoted─surrounded him. They quickly closed in and, drawing their knives, began to stab him. Bleeding from 23 brutal wounds, Caesar fell and died at the base of a statue he had commissioned: a statue of Pompey─his rival and friend. (7) Who was this man who stirred such a powerful mix of love, admiration,fear, and hatred? (8) Julius Caesar was born into a noble family, but he always supported the rights of the common people. He was the plebeian's favorite politician. They believed that he understood and cared about their needs. He did, but he was no saint. He was practical, strong willed, and hungry for power. Street-smart, he made very few mistakes, and he knew how to take advantage of the mistakes of his enemies. (9) In 60 BCE, Julius Caesar wanted to become a consul, but he was broke. He had already spent everything he had (or could borrow) to pay for his political career up to that point. He needed money and he needed help. So he made a bargain with two other men who also needed something: Cicero's friend Pompey and Crassus, the richest man in Rome. The three formed the First Triumvirate.
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お願いします (9) Knowing that he had very little support among the senators, Tiberius bypassed the Senate and took his proposal directly to the Assembly of the Plebs. He needed votes for his plan to become law, so he arranged for peasants to be brought in from the countryside to increase the number of votes in his favor. When another tribune, Octavius, tried to use his veto to stop the vote, Tiberius called for the Assembly to throw him out. According to Plutarch, one of Tiberius's servants dragged Octavius away. Luckily for Octavius, his rich pals rescued him from the angry mob. (10) With Octavius out of the way, the Assembly voted Tiberius's proposal into law. The senators tried desperately to block the actual transfer of land. They knew that it would involve a mass of paperwork, which is always expensive. All of the new farmers would need animals and tools. The total cost would be enormous. So the Senate refused to cover expense. That way, the hated law would be harmless─like a tiger without teeth. But Tiberius outsmarted them. He arranged to pay for the land transfers using money from a foreign kingdom. (11) Opinion in Rome was split. The way Tiberius had fought for his land reform, as much as thelaw itself, infuriated the senators. Tiberius had ignored the fact that the Senate was supposed to control Rome's finances. No wonder the nobleman hated him! But he became the common people's hero. This really worried the senators. They didn't want anyone to become too popular, especially with the Plebs. When Tiberius began to walk through Rome accompanied by bodyguards, the senators feared the worst. They thought he planned to take over the government by force and rule on his own, tossing aside written law and crippling the Senate's power.
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お願いします (1)“When I was 18 years old…I raised an army and used it to bring freedom back to the Roman state. I spent my own money to do it…. Because of this, the Senate passed a special resolution to make me a senator.” These words were written by Julius Caesar's great-nephew: the first person to serve as a Roman general and member of the Senate while he was still a teenager. (2) Julius Caesar, who had no legitimate sons of his own, was especially fond of his sister's grandson, Gaius Octavius. When his sister Julia died, the dictator chose 12-year-old Octavius to deliver his grandmother's funeral oration. Five years later, in 46 BCE, Octavius rode with his great-uncle in his triumphal procession into Rome. The next year, the young man joined Caesar's military campaign in Spain. The dictator believed that someday his great-nephew would do great things for Rome. (3) After his victories in Spain, Caesar planned a war against the rebellious tribes of Illyria, a region across the Adriatic Sea. Putting young Octavius in charge, he sent the army to Illyria with instructions to wait for him there. Then Caesar returned to Rome to begin reforming the government─a big job. Caesar set to work with energy and determination. But his plans were foiled by the daggers of his enemies, when he was assassinated on the Idea of March. (4) Eighteen- year-old Octavius was in Illyria when he got news of his uncle's death. He made up his mind to return to Rome. While he was packing to leave, a second messenger came with the surprising news that, in his will, Caesar had adopted Octavius as his son and made him the heir to an enormous fortune. This news was sure to raise eyebrows─and perhaps some swords─in Rome.
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お願いします (5) Brutus kept his promise. He and Lucretia's husband won the loyalty of the army and drove out Sextus's father, the tyrant Tarquin the Proud―Rome's third Etruscan king. They condemned him and his whole family to life in exile, never again to see Rome. And that was the end of kingship in Rome. From this point on, kingship became so unpopular that rex (king) became a term of hatred and dishonor. The arrogant king Tarquin had always been unpopular. But the Romans prized high morals above all, and his son's attack on a woman's honor was the last straw. (6) The story of Lucretia is one explanation for how kingship ended in Rome. But how had it begun? The Romans believed that Romulus became Rome's first king when he founded the city in 753 BCE. They believed that six more kings ruled Rome until Brutus forced Tarquin the Proud from his throne in 509 BCE. According to tradition, the first three kings who followed Romulus to the throne were Romans. But Roman kingship was not passed down in a royal family, as it is in Great Britain, for example. Instead, when a Roman king died, the Senate―a group of wealthy men who owned land―elected the next ruler. Even a foreigner could rule if he could gather enough support among the senators. And that's exactly what happened when the Senate elected an Etruscan, as the fifth king of Rome. Tarquinius Priscus, later known as Tarquinius the Elder, ruled well and brought Etruscan engineering and artistry to Rome. But his grandson Lucius Tarquinius, also called Tarquin the Proud, was another story. He was the tyrant who ruled as Rome's seventh and last king.
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お願いします (9) When the aspiring young politician finished his travels, he settled in Rome. Although he hated the corruption that he saw among the city's officials, he wanted to join their club. He hoped to become a magistrate and convince the others to govern once again with honor and justice―to forget their own ambitions and work for the common good. (10) Cicero wasn't a coward. He never hestitated to point ont the crimes that he saw, even if high-ranking officials had committed them. His first legal case pitted him against a top lawyer. Against all odds, he won. This victory made his reputation as the young man who beat an old pro. (11) In 75 BCE the people elected Cicero quaestor, an assistant to the governor of Sicily, when he was 30 years old―the youngest age the law allowed. Even though his ancestors had never held major office in Rome, Cicero climbed the ladder of success very quickly. He did it through hard work and innate brilliance. But Rome was like a boiling pot of trouble in Cicero's day, just as it had been when the Gracchi brothers were alive. Fierce battles still raged in the streets because so many people were hungry and jobless. (12) Riots and corruption had threatened Rome's security in the age of the Gracchi. Afterward, the situation greweven worse. German tribes moved south into Roman territory in southern Gaul modern France), where they defeated Roman armies in three frightening battles. This was the first time since Hannibal that foreign invaders had threatened Italy. Faced with new enemies, Rome desperately recruited soldiers. The consul Gaius Marius enlisted a new army, even accepting poor men who owned no land. Although soldiers usually supplied their own equipment, Marius gave uniforms and weapons to these new recruits.
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