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質問

The armies were short of ammunition, suffering from low morale and some infantry units refused orders. The autumn battles in Flanders had become static, attrition operations, unlike the battles of manoeuvre in the summer. French, British and Belgian troops in improvised field defences, repulsed German attacks for four weeks. From 21 to 23 October, German reservists had made mass attacks at Langemarck, with losses of up to 70 percent, to little effect.
Warfare between mass armies, equipped with the weapons of the Industrial Revolution and its later developments, proved to be indecisive, because field fortifications neutralised many classes of offensive weapon. The defensive use of artillery and machine guns, dominated the battlefield and the ability of the armies to supply themselves and replace casualties prolonged battles for weeks. Thirty-four German divisions fought in the Flanders battles, against twelve French, nine British and six Belgian, along with marines and dismounted cavalry. Falkenhayn reconsidered German strategy over the winter, because Vernichtungsstrategie and a dictated peace against France and Russia had been shown to be beyond German resources. Falkenhayn intended to detach Russia or France from the Allied coalition by diplomatic as well as military action. A strategy of attrition (Ermattungsstrategie) would make the cost of the war too great for the Allies, until one made a separate peace. The remaining belligerents would have to negotiate or face the Germans concentrated on the remaining front, which would be sufficient to obtain a decisive victory.

Strategic developments
Eastern Front
Main article: Eastern Front
On 9 October, the First German offensive against Warsaw began with the battles of Warsaw (9–19 October) and Ivangorod (9–20 October). Four days later, Przemyśl was relieved by the advancing Austro-Hungarians and the Battle of Chyrow 13 October – 2 November) began in Galicia. Czernowitz in Bukovina was re-occupied by the Austro-Hungarian army on 22 August and then lost again to the Russian army on 28 October. On 29 October, the Ottoman Empire commenced hostilities against Russia, when Turkish warships bombarded Odessa, Sevastopol and Theodosia. Next day Stanislau in Galicia was taken by Russian forces and the Serbian army began a retreat from the line of the Drina. On 4 November, the Russian army crossed the frontier of Turkey-in-Asia and seized Azap.
Britain and France declared war on Turkey on 5 November and next day, Keupri-Keni in Armenia was captured, during the Bergmann Offensive (2–16 November) by the Russian army. On 10 October, Przemysl was surrounded again by the Russian army, beginning the Second Siege; Memel in East Prussia was occupied by the Russians a day later.

回答No.1

Nakay702 · ベストアンサー

＞The armies were short of ammunition, suffering from low morale and some infantry units refused orders. The autumn battles in Flanders had become static, attrition operations, unlike the battles of manoeuvre in the summer. French, British and Belgian troops in improvised field defences, repulsed German attacks for four weeks. From 21 to 23 October, German reservists had made mass attacks at Langemarck, with losses of up to 70 percent, to little effect.
⇒各方面軍は弾薬が足りず、低い士気を患い、歩兵部隊の一部は命令を拒否した。フランドルの秋の戦いは、夏の機動戦とは異なり、静かな消耗戦となった。フランス軍、英国軍、ベルギー軍の部隊が即興で戦場防御隊を組み、4週間にわたるドイツ軍の攻撃を撃退した。10月21日から23日まで、ドイツ軍の予備隊がランゲマルクで大量攻撃を行ったが、損失が70％に上って、ほとんど効果はなかった。

＞Warfare between mass armies, equipped with the weapons of the Industrial Revolution and its later developments, proved to be indecisive, because field fortifications neutralised many classes of offensive weapon. The defensive use of artillery and machine guns, dominated the battlefield and the ability of the armies to supply themselves and replace casualties prolonged battles for weeks. Thirty-four German divisions fought in the Flanders battles, against twelve French, nine British and six Belgian, along with marines and dismounted cavalry.
⇒「産業革命」とその後の開発によって、方面軍同士の間で防備を整えた戦争は決着しにくいことが判明した。野戦砦の強化が、多くの種類の攻撃兵器を無効にしたからである。守備に使用される大砲や機関銃が戦場を支配し、方面軍が自給しつつ死傷者を交代させる能力を持ったことで、戦いは数週間にわたって長引いた。フランドルの戦いでは、ドイツ軍の34個師団がフランス軍の12個師団、英国軍の9個師団、ベルギー軍の6個師団と戦闘し、それに海兵隊や下馬した騎兵隊も加わった。

＞Falkenhayn reconsidered German strategy over the winter, because Vernichtungsstrategie and a dictated peace against France and Russia had been shown to be beyond German resources. Falkenhayn intended to detach Russia or France from the Allied coalition by diplomatic as well as military action. A strategy of attrition (Ermattungsstrategie) would make the cost of the war too great for the Allies, until one made a separate peace. The remaining belligerents would have to negotiate or face the Germans concentrated on the remaining front, which would be sufficient to obtain a decisive victory.
⇒ファルケンハインは、冬の間のドイツ軍の戦略を再検討した。なぜなら「殲滅的砲火戦略作戦」と、その後にフランス軍・ロシア軍に対する和平案の提起をすることは、ドイツ軍の資源力を超えていることが示されたからである。ファルケンハインは、軍事行動によるだけでなく外交によって、連合国軍からロシア軍やフランス軍を切り離すことを意図した。「消耗戦略」は、別途の和平が成るまでには連合軍にとっても戦争費用が大きすぎるものになるであろう、と。（そうすれば）残りの交戦国はドイツ軍と交渉するか、ドイツ軍が集中する残りの戦線に直面しなければならなくなるはずで、それならドイツ軍が決定的な勝利を得るのに十分であろう。

＞Strategic developments　Eastern Front　Main article: Eastern Front
　On 9 October, the First German offensive against Warsaw began with the battles of Warsaw (9–19 October) and Ivangorod (9–20 October). Four days later, Przemyśl was relieved by the advancing Austro-Hungarians and the Battle of Chyrow 13 October – 2 November) began in Galicia. Czernowitz in Bukovina was re-occupied by the Austro-Hungarian army on 22 August and then lost again to the Russian army on 28 October. On 29 October, the Ottoman Empire commenced hostilities against Russia, when Turkish warships bombarded Odessa, Sevastopol and Theodosia. Next day Stanislau in Galicia was taken by Russian forces and the Serbian army began a retreat from the line of the Drina. On 4 November, the Russian army crossed the frontier of Turkey-in-Asia and seized Azap.
⇒戦略開発　東部戦線　主要記事：東部前線
　10月9日、ワルシャワに対する最初のドイツ軍攻勢は、ワルシャワ戦（10月９－19日）とイヴァンゴロド戦（10月9－20日）で始まった。4日後、プルゼミスルは進軍するオーストリア‐ハンガリー軍に救われ、「チロウの戦い」（10月13－11月2日）がガリツィアで始まった。ブコビナのチェルノビッツは8月22日にオーストリア‐ハンガリー軍に再占領され、その後10月28日に再びロシア方面軍に敗れた。トルコ軍艦がオデッサ、セバストポルおよびテオドシアを襲撃した10月29日、オスマン帝国はロシアに対する敵対行為を開始した。翌日、ガリツィアのスタニスラウがロシア軍に占領され、セルビア軍はドリナ戦線から退却を始めた。11月4日、ロシア軍はアジア域内トルコの国境を越えてアザップを掌握した。

＞Britain and France declared war on Turkey on 5 November and next day, Keupri-Keni in Armenia was captured, during the Bergmann Offensive (2–16 November) by the Russian army. On 10 October, Przemysl was surrounded again by the Russian army, beginning the Second Siege; Memel in East Prussia was occupied by the Russians a day later.
⇒英国とフランスは、11月5日にトルコとの戦争を宣言し、翌日、アルメニアのケウプリ‐ケニがロシア軍による「ベルクマン攻勢」（11月２－16日）の間に攻略された。10月10日、プルゼミスルが再びロシア軍に囲まれ、「第2次包囲戦」が始まった。東プロイセンのメメルはその1日後にロシア軍によって攻略された。

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