It dislikes too much and is troubled.
It is attached whether it is variously rich.
that class -- an annoying fellow's lump
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Contingent Renewal Market Do Not Clear
In the absence of an enforceable contract, why do agents keep their promise? Of course, some agents are just honest but there are doubtless enough dishonest people that exchange would break down if enforcement were based on the integrity of the agents.
The answer is that if agents do not keep their promises, principals dump them. This actions present trigger strategies: the exchange between principal and agent is renewed indefinitely (perhaps with some exogenous probability of dissolution), the principal using the threat of nonrenewal to secure compliance.
A contingent renewal market is a market in which exchange between buyers and sellers are regulated by contingent renewal relationships.
Excess supply of labor market take the form not only of unemployment but of underemployment: workers hold one position but are capable and willing to fill a better position, even at the going wage, but they cannot secure such position.
Risksharing, requiring the borrower to put up a fraction of the equity in a project, is the most widely used in a credit markets, it follows that lending is directed predominantly toward wealthy agents.
Contingent renewal (making available a line of credit, contingent on performance) adds the dimension that a certain subset of nonwealthy borrowers with good projects can get loans, facing the threat of falling into the pool of unemployed credit seekers should their credit line be terminated.
In our game-theoretic model, equilibrium price in markets with quality goods must exceed marginal cost, not because a high price ensures that it is costly to lose a client, thus reassuring the buyer that the seller has an incentive to produce a high-quality goods.
Clinical trial
Before a new drug candidate can proceed to toxicologic or clinical evaluation, considerable analytical chemical development is required to lay the ground work for quality control and stability studies. Drug standards are established and analytical methods for the bulk drug and for the proposed final product are devised. Tentative chemical, physical, and biological specifications of the candidate drug are established. If a compound has desirable activity in an experimental testing system, and appears to be safe upon toxicologic examination, it becomes a candidate for clinical trial. The first trial of a drug in man is done with great caution and on a very limited basis. This study, called Phase I, is devoted primary to ascertaining the safety in the human. When these limits have been established and are found acceptable, the drug is made available to a large number of practicing specialists for the Phase II study, which is principally concerned with the determination of efficacy in patients. If, after Phase II, the drug still looks promising, it is distributed more widely to selected practicing physicians in the Phase III study. The purpose at this stage is to secure data from large number of patients on efficacy and incidence of side effects.
ATP energy
The liver is the central distributing and processing organ for nutrient. Glucose 6-phosphate, the key intermediate in carbohydrate metabolism, may be converted into glycogen, into blood glucose, or into fatty acids via acetyl-CoA. It may undergo degradation via glycolysis and the citric acid-cycle to yield ATP energy or via the pentose phosphate cycle to yield pentoses and NADPH. Amino acids may be built up into liver and plasma proteins, or they may be converted into glucose and glycogen by gluconeogenesis. The ammonia formed by their deamination is converted into urea by the urea cycle. Fatty acids may be converted by the liver into triacylglycerols, cholesterol, and into plasma lipoproteins for transport and storage in adipose tissue. They may also be oxidized to yield ATP energy and to form the ketone bodies, to be circulated to other tissues. Skeletal muscle is specialized to produce ATP for contraction and relaxation. In very severe muscular work, glycogen is the ultimate fuel and is converted into lactate. During recovery the lactate is rebuilt to form liver glycogen and glucose again. The brain uses only glucose and β-hydroxybutyrate as fuels, the latter being important in fasting or starvation. The brain uses most of its ATP energy for active transport of Na+ and K+ and in the maintenance of the action potential of neuronal membranes.
Grignard reagent
A Grignard reagent is prepared by the reaction of magnesium metal with an organohalogen compound in an ether solvent.
An ether solvent is necessary for the formation of the Grignard reagent. It is thought that the unshared electrons of the oxygen coordinate with the Mg to stabilize the organometallic compound. Also, the alkyl portion of the ether provides a hydrocarbon-like solvent for the organic part of the Grignard reagent. Both these factors result in Grignard reagents being soluble in ethers.
Diethyl ether is the usual solvent because it is inexpensive. Other ethers, such as tetrahydrofuran, can also be used.
Grignard reagents are extremely strong bases that react with acids, alcohols, amines, water, and even such weak acids as alkynes with a terminal triple bond (RC≡CH, pKa 26). In these reactions, the R of RMgX removes a proton from the acidic compound and becomes an alkane (RH).
Because acid-base reactions are very rapid compared to other organic reactions, a compound with a removable H+ quickly destroys a Grignard reagent. Therefore in carrying out a Grignard reaction, we must use scrupulously dry glassware, solvents, and reagents. In addition, the reagents must not contain a group with a reactive hydrogen unless an alkane is the desired product.
In the reaction with a carbonyl compound, the organic portion of a Grignard reagent acts as a strong nucleophile and attacks the partially positive carbonyl carbon to yield a magnesium alkoxide.
Subsequent treatment of the alkoxide with aqueous acid yields the
alcohol itself.
Organometallic compound
An organometallic compound is an organic compound that contains carbon bonded to a metal. Some organometallic compounds are highly reactive (dangerously so), while others are relatively stable.
The degree of reactivity of an organometallic compound depends on the degree of ionic character of the carbon-metal covalent bond. Because carbon is more electronegative than metals, a carbon atom bonded to a metallic atom withdraws electrons towards itself. Thus, the carbon atom attains a partial negative charge and the organic group can behave as a carbanion (R3C:-).
A more negative carbon is more reactive than a less negative carbon; therefore, the most reactive organometallic compounds are those containing the most electropositive metals (the alkali metals). An organometallic compound containing a less electropositive metal is less reactive.
CH3CdCH3 < CH3MgI < CH3Li
increasing ionic character; increasing reactivity
In 1901, the French mathematician-chemist Victor Grignard reported organomagnesium halides (RMgX), now called Grignard reagent, in his doctoral dissertation. He received the 1912 Nobel prize in chemistry for his discovery and Subsequent development of the reactions of these reagents.
One useful reaction of a Grignard reagent is its reaction with a ketone to yield the magnesium salt of a tertiary alcohol, which can be converted to the alcohol by hydrolysis.
Electrophilic substitution
Electrophilic substitution in the highly activated phenol ring occurs under very mild conditions, and mononitration must be carried out with dilute aqueous nitric acid. The usual nitric acid-sulfuric acid mixture gives complex mixtures of polynitro compounds and oxidation products.
Separation of o- and p-nitrophenol can be accomplished by taking advantage of the strong intramolecular hydrogen bonding, or chelation, in the ortho isomer. In the para isomer, the hydrogen bonding is inter-molecular, leading to association of the molecules in the liquid and much lower vapor pressure. On steam distillation of the mixture the ortho isomer is obtained in pure form in the distillate. The para isomer can then be isolated from the nonvolatile residue.
[Procedure]
In a 250-ml Erlenmeyer flask, place 10 ml of concentrated nitric acid and 35 ml of water. Weigh out 8.0 g of phenol ("loose crystals") in a 50-ml beaker. (CAUTION: Avoid contact with skin.) Add 2 ml of water and allow the mixture to liquefy. With a disposable pipet, add 1- to 2-ml portions of the phenol to the nitric acid and cool as necessary by swirling in a pan of cold water to keep the temperature of the reaction mixture at 45 to 50°. After all of the phenol has been added (rinse the beaker with 1 ml of water), shake the flask intermittently for 5 to 10 minutes while the contents cool to room temperature. Meanwhile, assemble the apparatus for steam distillation.
Transfer the reaction mixture to a separatory funnel and drain the oily organic layer into a three-neck 500-ml flask. Add 150 ml of water and then carry out steam distillation until no further o-nitrophenol appears in the distillate. Collect the o-nitrophenol, air dry, and determine yield and melting point.
For isolation of the para isomer, adjust the total volume of the distillation residue to about 200 ml by adding more water or removing water by distillation. Decant the hot mixture through a coarse fluted filter or loose cotton pad, add about 1 to 2 g of charcoal to the hot filtrate, heat again to boiling, and refilter to remove charcoal. Cool a 500-ml Erlenmeyer flask in ice and pour into it a small portion of the hot solution to promote rapid crystallization and prevent separation of the product as an oil. Then add the remainder of the solution in small portions so that each is quickly chilled. Collect crystals, dry, and report yield and melting point.
