Petrograd Uprising: The Fight for Food and Freedom
- On 8 March, the Putilov protesters joined forces with those celebrating International Woman's Day to protest against the government's food rationing.
- The implementation of food rationing in Russia sparked rumors of shortages and led to bread riots in Petrograd.
- Over 50,000 workers, both men and women, marched through the streets of Petrograd demanding an end to the war and the overthrow of the Russian monarchy.
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On 8 March (O.S. February 23), Putilov protesters were joined in uprising by those celebrating International Woman's Day and protesting against the government's implemented food rationing. As the Russian government began rationing flour and bread, rumors of food shortages circulated and bread riots erupted across the city of Petrograd. Women, in particular, were passionate in showing their dissatisfaction with the implemented rationing system, and the female workers marched to nearby factories to recruit over 50,000 workers for strike. Both men and women flooded the streets of Petrograd with red flags and banners which read "Down with the Autocracy!" By the following day [O.S. February 24], nearly 200,000 protesters filled the streets, demanding the replacement of the Tsar with a more progressive political leader. The protesting mob called for the war to end and for the Russian monarchy to be overthrown. By 10 March [O.S. 25 February], nearly all industrial enterprises in Petrograd were shut down by the uprising.
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＞On 8 March (O.S. February 23), Putilov protesters were joined in uprising by those celebrating International Woman's Day and protesting against the government's implemented food rationing. As the Russian government began rationing flour and bread, rumors of food shortages circulated and bread riots erupted across the city of Petrograd. Women, in particular, were passionate in showing their dissatisfaction with the implemented rationing system, and the female workers marched to nearby factories to recruit over 50,000 workers for strike. ⇒3月8日（旧ロシア歴2月23日）、「国際婦人デー」を祝い、政府の実施した食物配給制に抗議する人たちがプチロフ抗議者に合流して膨れ上がった。ロシア政府が小麦粉とパンの配給制を開始したので、食物不足の噂が広まって、パン暴動がペトログラードの都市全域で噴出した。女性は、特に、実施された配給制システムについての不満を示すことに激情化して、女性労働者が50,000人以上の労働者をストライキに誘い入れるために近くの工場に向かって行進した。 ＞Both men and women flooded the streets of Petrograd with red flags and banners which read "Down with the Autocracy!" By the following day [O.S. February 24], nearly 200,000 protesters filled the streets, demanding the replacement of the Tsar with a more progressive political leader. The protesting mob called for the war to end and for the Russian monarchy to be overthrown. By 10 March [O.S. 25 February], nearly all industrial enterprises in Petrograd were shut down by the uprising. ⇒男性も女性も両方とも、「独裁政治を倒せ！」と書いた赤旗や横断幕を持ってペトログラード通りに殺到した。次の日〔旧ロシア歴2月24日〕までには、ほぼ200,000人の抗議者が通りを埋め尽くして、ツァーをより進歩的な政治指導者に置き換えるよう要求した。抗議する暴徒が、戦争を終わらせて、ロシアの君主制を転覆することを求めた。3月10日〔旧ロシア歴2月25日〕までには、ペトログラードのほとんど全ての産業・企業が反乱によって閉鎖された。
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While apparently unfounded, these reports resulted in attacks on individual policemen throughout the city. Meanwhile, some soldiers mutinied. Then, on 11 March [O.S. 26 February], the Tsar ordered the army to suppress the rioting by force, but troops mutinied and joined the protesters. On the morning of 12 March (O.S. 27 February), mutinous soldiers of the Fourth Company of the Pavlovski Replacement Regiment refused to fall in on parade when commanded, shot two officers, and joined the protesters on the streets. Other regiments quickly joined in the mutiny, resulting in the hunting down of police and the gathering of 40,000 rifles which were dispersed among the workers. By nightfall of 12 March (O.S. 27 February), General Khabalov and his forces faced a capital controlled by revolutionaries. The protesters of Petrograd burned down government buildings, seized the arsenal, and released prisoners into the city.
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Colonial administrators and settlers brought scientific cultivation to the country's main export crops (cacao, coffee, cotton). The total number of German officials in the colony was only 12 in 1890. The colony’s infrastructure was developed to one of the highest levels in Africa. Colonial officials built roads and bridges to the interior mountain ranges and three rail lines from the capital Lomé; along the coast to Aného in 1905, to Palime (modern Kpalimé) in 1907, and the longest line, the Hinterlandbahn to Atakpamé by 1911. By 1910, over 1,000 of roads were constructed by the colonial office. Organised in 1888 with 25 Hausa infantry, the Polizeitruppe was utilised in enforcing the colonial authority over the hinterland of Togo.
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Troops of the KAR launched a tentative attack on Mbombwe on 25 January but the engagement proved inconclusive. Chilembwe's forces held a strong defensive position along the Mbombwe river and could not be pushed back. Two African government soldiers were killed and three were wounded; Chilembwe's losses have been estimated as about 20. On 26 January, a group of rebels attacked a Catholic mission at Nguludi belonging to Father Swelsen. The mission was defended by four African armed guards, one of whom was killed, Father Swelsen was also wounded in the fighting and the church was burnt down. The military and militia forces assaulted Mbombwe again the same day but encountered no resistance. Many rebels, including Chilembwe, had fled the village disguised as civilians. Mbombwe's fall and the government troops' subsequent demolition of Chilembwe's church with dynamite ended the rebellion. Kaduya was captured and brought back to Magomero where he was publicly executed. After the defeat of the rebellion, most of the remaining insurgents attempted to escape eastwards across the Shire Highlands, towards Portuguese East Africa, from where they hoped to head north to German territory. Chilembwe was seen by a patrol of Nyasaland police and shot dead on 3 February near Mlanje. Many other rebels were captured; 300 were imprisoned following the rebellion and 40 were executed. Around 30 rebels evaded capture and settled in Portuguese territory near the Nyasaland border. The colonial authorities responded quickly to the uprising with as much force and as many troops, police and settler volunteers it could muster to hunt down and kill suspected rebels. There was no official death toll, but perhaps 50 of Chilembwe’s followers were killed in the fighting, when trying to escape after or summarily executed. Worrying that the rebellion might rapidly reignite and spread, the authorities instigated arbitrary reprisals against the local African population, including mass hut burnings. All weapons were confiscated and fines of 4 shillings per person were levied in the districts affected by the revolt, regardless of whether the people in question had been involved. As part of the repression, a series of courts were hastily convened which passed death sentences on Forty-six men for the offences of murder and high treason and 300 others were given prison sentences. Thirty-six were executed and, to increase the deterrent effect, some of the ringleaders were hanged in public on a main road close to the Magomero Estate where Europeans had been killed.
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Historian Edward Acton argues that "by stubbornly refusing to reach any modus vivendi with the Progressive Bloc of the Duma... Nicholas undermined the loyalty of even those closest to the throne [and] opened an unbridgeable breach between himself and public opinion." In short, the Tsar no longer had the support of the military, the nobility or the Duma (collectively the élites), or the Russian people. The result was revolution. The first major protest of the February Revolution occurred on 7 March 1917 (O.S. 22 February) as workers of Putilov (later called Kirov Plant), Petrograd’s largest industrial plant, announced a strike to demonstrate against the government. By 1917, the majority of Russians had lost faith in the Tsarist regime. Government corruption was unrestrained, and Tsar Nicholas II had frequently disregarded the Dumas. Thousands of workers flooded the streets of Petrograd (modern St. Petersburg) to show their dissatisfaction.
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The status of the Transcaucasian Commissariat was unclear at the time: the Ottomans regarded it as an independent entity, a legal successor of the Russian Empire, while the Commissariat still considered itself a part of the Russian Republic. The Ottoman Empire was already party to the Brest-Litovsk armistice with Russia (15 December) that covered the Caucasian and Persian Fronts. After receiving a ceasefire proposal from Vehib Pasha, commander of the Ottoman Third Army, the Commissariat authorised the commander of the Russian Caucasus Front, General Przhevalski, to negotiate an armistice with his Ottoman opposite. The result was the Erzincan Armistice, after which the Russian troops began to withdraw, leaving the Transcaucasian Commissariat completely undefended. A supplement to the armistice was signed on the same day, demarcating the line of occupation between the two sides. On 12 February, Ottoman forces began advancing across the line in defiance of the armistice, having rejected the Transcaucasian Commissariat's authority to sign it and accused the Armenians of massacring Muslims behind the Ottoman line on 15–16 January. On 24 February the Brest-Litovsk armistice was broken by Germany and became of no effect. Both armistices were superseded by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Russia, signed on 3 March 1918, and the Treaty of Batum with the successor states of the Transcaucasian Commissariat, signed 4 June. The Special Transcaucasian Committee (Russian: Особый Закавказский Комитет Osobyi Zakavkazskii Komitet (OZaKom, Ozakom or OZAKOM)) was established on March 9, 1917, with Member of the State Duma V. A. Kharlamov as Chairman, to replace the Imperial Viceroy Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich and with special instruction to establish civil administrations in areas occupied in the course of the war on the Caucasian front by the Russian Provisional Government in the Transcaucasia as the highest organ of civil administrative body. Commissars were appointed for the Terek and Kuban oblasts, and these as well as the Committee were to carry on relations with central government institutions through a Commissar for Caucasian Affairs in Petrograd attached to the Provisional Government.
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Although Murray delegated the responsibility for the battle to Dobell, he set three objectives. These were to capture a line along the Wadi Ghuzzee in order to cover the laying of the railway line, to prevent the defenders withdrawing before they were attacked, and to "capture Gaza and its garrison by a coup de main." The plan of attack produced by Dobell and his staff, was similar to those successfully implemented at Magdhaba by Chauvel and at Rafa by Chetwode, except that the EEF infantry were to have a prominent role. On a larger scale than the previous battles, the garrison at Gaza, established in fortified entrenchments and redoubts, was to be surrounded and captured, before Ottoman reinforcements could arrive. The main attack on the town and Ali Muntar hill would come from the south, by the Desert Column's 53rd (Welsh) Division commanded by Dallas, supported by one infantry brigade of Eastern Force's 54th (East Anglian) Division, commanded by Hare.
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あるサイトに以下の文があったのですが、翻訳サイトで試してもうまくいきませんでした。 もし、お暇でしたら、よろしくお願いします。 Three of the workers battling to save Japan's stricken Fukushima nuclear plant have been taken to hospital with radiation burns. The men, of the "Fukushima fifty" hailed around the world for their work inside the plant, suffered serious leg injuries while wading through contaminated water to lay power cables to the plant. Officials said the workers, two in their twenties and one in his thirties, were exposed to irradiated water in the number 3 reactor when it seeped through their protective gear, causing them to be contaminated with a level of radiation almost twice as high as the "safe" limit. They were diagnosed as having sustained burn injuries at a Fukushima hospital, and will be sent to the National Institute of Radiological Sciences in Chiba prefecture for further tests. "This is a very regrettable situation," said chief cabinet secretary Yudio Edano. "They were in a basement area of the number 3 reactor, standing in water that was irradiated," he said. Japan's nuclear safety agency and the plant operator Tepco said the three workers were exposed to radiation amounting to 170 to 180 millisieverts, lower than the maximum limit of 250 millisieverts set by the health ministry for workers tackling the emergency. 続く
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To overcome the German defensive system, which had been made more formidable by the unusually rainy weather in August, making movement much more difficult and forcing the British to keep to duck board tracks, easy to identify and bombard, objectives had been chosen which provided British infantry with good positions from which to face German counter-attacks, rather than to advance to the maximum distance before digging-in. The Fifth Army had set objectives much closer than 3,000–3,500 yd (2,700–3,200 m) after 31 July and the Second Army methods of September were based on SS 144 The Normal Formation for the Attack (February 1917), reflecting the experience of the fighting in August and to exploit opportunities made possible by the reinforcement of the Flanders front with another 626 artillery pieces by Sir Douglas Haig, during the operational pause before 20 September. The methods based on the Second Army Note of 31 August, had proved themselves on 20 September and were to be repeated. The attack of 20 September, had used the extra infantry made available by narrowing attack frontages and increasing the number of divisions, to have greater depth than those of August, with several widely spaced lines of infantry in front of section columns, snaking round shell-holes and patches of mud, ready to surround German pillboxes, with increased numbers of support waves ready to leap-frog through and reserves ready to intervene, during delays and German counter-attacks. Intermediate objectives were chosen which required a shorter distance to be covered and the number of infantry attacking the first objective were reduced, since the German garrisons in the forward defended areas were small and dispersed. British troops involved in the first advance were lightly equipped, to allow them to move more quickly, to avoid German counter-barrages and get through the relatively empty area up to the first objective.
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In February, instructions were issued from the divisional headquarters, covering communications, supply dumps, equipment, arms and ammunition to be carried by each soldier, the proportion of the attacking units to be left out of battle, medical arrangements, substitute commanders, liaison, wire-cutting and bombardment arrangements of SOS signals for artillery and machine-gun barrages, gas bombardment, smoke screens and measures to deal with stragglers and prisoners. The instructions went into great detail, stipulating that officers were to dress the same as their men, precautions were to be taken to stop machine-gun barrages falling on friendly troops, the positions of observers and the calculation of safety distances. Signals to open fire were a green very light, a red and white rocket, a yellow and black flag or Morse SOS by signal lamp, at which the machine-gunners were to fire for ten minutes.
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Sailing alone in heavy seas, Hampshire was approximately 1.5 mi (2.4 km) off the mainland of Orkney between Brough of Birsay and Marwick Head at 19:40 when an explosion occurred and she heeled to starboard. She had struck one of several mines laid by the German minelaying submarine U-75 on 28/29 May 1916, just before the Battle of Jutland. The detonation had holed the cruiser between bows and bridge, and the lifeboats were smashed against the side of the ship by the heavy seas when they were lowered. About 15 minutes after the explosion, Hampshire sank by the bow. Of the 655 crewmen and 7 passengers aboard, only 12 crewmen on two Carley floats managed to reach the shore alive; Kitchener and his staff were lost. Fritz Joubert Duquesne, a Boer and German spy, claimed to have assumed the identity of Russian Count Boris Zakrevsky and joined Kitchener in Scotland. Duquesne supposedly signalled a German U-boat shortly after departing Scapa Flow to alert them that Kitchener’s ship was approaching. He was then rescued by the submarine as Hampshire sank. In the 1930s and '40s, he ran the Duquesne Spy Ring and was captured by the FBI along with 32 other Nazi agents in the largest espionage conviction in U.S. history.
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