British support and Arab strategy in capturing Medina
- British support and Arab strategy for capturing Medina changed during the Arab Revolt.
- Hussein's son Feisal led an initial attack against Medina but was repulsed by the Turks.
- Leaving Medina unoccupied would force the Turks to retain troops and protect the Hejaz Railway.
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With British support, an initial attack led by Hussein's son Feisal was launched against Medina in October 1916; however, the Arabs were repulsed with heavy losses by the Turks, who were heavily-entrenched and armed with artillery, which the Arabs lacked. As the Arab Revolt slowly spread northwards along the Red Sea (ultimately culminating in the seizure of Aqaba), British and Arab strategy for capturing Medina changed, and Faisal and his advisers was determined that the Arabs would gain an advantage by leaving Medina unoccupied; this would force the Turks to retain troops to defend Medina, and to protect the Hejaz Railway, the only means of supplying the city.
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＞With British support, an initial attack led by Hussein's son Feisal was launched against Medina in Octob er 1916; however, the Arabs were repulsed with heavy losses by the Turks, who were heavily-entrenched and armed with artillery, which the Arabs lacked. ⇒英国の支持を得て、フセインの息子フェイサルが率いた最初の攻撃は、1916年10月にメディナに対して開始された。しかし、アラブ族はトルコ人に撃退され、大損害を蒙った。トルコ人は重装備し、銃砲で武装していたが、アラブ族はそれを欠いていた。 ＞As the Arab Revolt slowly spread northwards along the Red Sea (ultimately culminating in the seizure of Aqaba), British and Arab strategy for capturing Medina changed, and Faisal and his advisers was determined that the Arabs would gain an advantage by leaving Medina unoccupied; this would force the Turks to retain troops to defend Medina, and to protect the Hejaz Railway, the only means of supplying the city. ⇒アラブの反乱は、紅海に沿ってゆっくり北方へ広がった（最終的にアカバの収奪で頂点に達した）ので、メディナを占領するという英国とアラブ族の戦略は変更され、ファイサルと彼の相談役は、メディナを占領しないまま残すことで優位に立つこととした。これは、トルコ人に対して、メディナを防護し都市供給の唯一の手段であるヘジャズ鉄道を保護するために、軍隊を維持し続けることを強いる形になるからである。
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With British support, an initial attack led by Hussein's son Feisal was launched against Medina in October 1916; however, the Arabs were repulsed with heavy losses by the Turks, who were heavily-entrenched and armed with artillery, which the Arabs lacked. As the Arab Revolt slowly spread northwards along the Red Sea (ultimately culminating in the seizure of Aqaba), British and Arab strategy for capturing Medina changed, and Faisal and his advisers was determined that the Arabs would gain an advantage by leaving Medina unoccupied; this would force the Turks to retain troops to defend Medina, and to protect the Hejaz Railway, the only means of supplying the city. For this purpose, Nuri as-Said set about creating military training camps in Mecca under the direction of General 'Aziz 'Ali al-Misri. Using a mix of Bedouin volunteers, Arab officers and Arab Ottoman deserters who wanted to join the Arab Revolt, 'Aziz 'Ali created three infantry brigades, a mounted brigade, an engineering unit, and three different artillery groups made up of a patchwork of varying cannon and heavy caliber machine guns. Of his total force of 30,000, 'Aziz 'Ali proposed that it be divided into three armies:
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入院と自動車学校で勉強ができませんでした。 テストが間近です。手助けをお願いします。 Among the Arabs, too, Lawrence’s fame had spread.Now every time he rode into an Arab camp the Arabs would fire their rifles into the air and shout over and over,〝Aurens！Aurens！’’They could not say the name properly,but they all knew it was Lawrence they were cheering.The Turks,too,had heard of Lawrence by now,and they wanted him killed or captured.So what Lawrence said happened next might well be true.Lawrence decided to go on a spying trip.Everything went wrong and the Turks caught him. A short way along the Damascus-Medina railway there is a town called Deraa.In the First World War it was an important railway junction,a place where two main lines met.If Lawrence and the Arabs could blow up the track there,it would be a major setback for the Turks.But was this possible？There were a lot of Turkish soldiers in Deraa,and because it was the local capital the Bey（goverment） lived there too.The Bey of Deraa was a tall,heavy man with a thick black mustache.We know from a diary he kept during the war that he had heard of Lawrence and that he had heard of Lawrence and that he had made up his mind to try to capture him.Lawrence believed that the only way to learn for certain whether it was possible to attack Deraa was to go there on a spying mission and see for himself.So he dressed in ordinary Arab clothes and asked an old Arab to go with him.He hoped that the Turks would think that he and the old man were just a son and his father who had come to town to buy something.Forawhile everything went well.No one paid any attention to two Arabs,walking barefoot,their cheap clothes stained by the rain and mud.They went and looked at the railway station,pretending to check the trains.They walked outside the fence,but took careful note of its stores,barbed-wire defenses,and trenches. 入院していたころの範囲です。 ノートも次の授業の関係で借りることができませんでした・・・。 よろしくお願いします。
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The Battle of Aqaba (6 July 1917) was fought for the Red Sea port of Aqaba (now in Jordan). The attacking forces of the Arab Revolt, led by Auda ibu Tayi and advised by T. E. Lawrence ("Lawrence of Arabia"), were victorious over the Ottoman defenders.Following an unsuccessful attack on Medina, forces of the Arab Revolt under Emir Faisal I were on the defensive against the Ottomans (or Turks). In the spring of 1917, Arab forces moved north to seize the Red Sea ports of Yenbo and Wejh, allowing them to regain the initiative, but neither the Arabs nor their British allies could agree on a subsequent plan of action. The Arabs began a series of attacks on the Hejaz Railway, and contemplated another campaign against Medina, but with British troops stationary in front of Gaza, it seemed they were not in a position to succeed. The Ottoman government had sent Arab divisions of its army, which held many pro-Revolt units, to the front lines, depriving Faisal and his allies of much-needed reinforcements. Lawrence, sent by General Archibald Murray, commander of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, to act as a military adviser to Faisal, convinced the latter to attack Aqaba. Aqaba was a Turkish-garrisoned port in Jordan, which would threaten British forces operating in Palestine; the Turks had also used it as a base during their First Suez Offensive on the Suez Canal in 1915. It was also suggested by Faisal that the port be taken as a means for the British to supply his Arab forces as they moved further north. Though he did not take part in the attack itself (his cousin Sherif Nasir rode along as the leader of his forces), Faisal lent forty of his men to Lawrence. Lawrence also met with Auda ibu Tayi, leader of the northern Howeitat tribe of Bedouin, who agreed to lend himself and a large number of his men to the expedition. Lawrence informed his British colleagues of the planned expedition, but they apparently did not take him seriously, expecting it to fail. The Battle of Aqaba アカバの戦い
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入院と自動車学校で勉強できませんでした。 一週間後にテストがあります。お手伝いをおねいがいします。 All the next day Lawrence and the Arabs fired on the Turks,but the Turkish force was large and the battle showed no sigh of ending.Finally Auda decided thet camel charge would settle matters.A camel charge is an amazing sight.To see these big,clumsy,and slow-moving animals you would not believe that they can run very fast when they want to.Imagine five hundred camels racing across the desert toward you,with a bearded Arab with hawk nose and fierce eyes on top of each camels, shouting war cries and firing his rifle,his robes flowing in the wind,his knife on a belt around his waist.The Turkish soldiers broke ranks and fled.Lawrence ,in the second wave of the charge,got so excited that instead of firing his revolver at the Turks,he accidently fired it into his camel’s head,blowing the poor animal’s brains out.The camel dropped dead.Lawrence was flung to the ground and knocked out.When he woke up the battle was over.Three hundred Turks were dead and there were 160 prisoners for the loss of only two Arabs.Now nothing stood in the way of Akaba. More and more Arabs came to join Lawrence on the last days of the march until finally about one thousand men stood outside the walls of the Turkish port.The heat was intense.Food supplies within Akaba were low.The Arabs were in a bloodthirsty mood.Lawrence felt that the Turks would be ready to surrender without a fight,so he sent them a message carried by an Arab under a white flag of truce.But when the Arab got near the walls the Turks shot at him.Next Lawrence sent a message with some Turkish prisoners the Arabs had taken at Aba el Lissan.But the Turks fired at them too.Then a little Turkish prisoner said he knew hot to do it.He took off all his clothes except his boots and walked up to the Turkish lines naked.The Turks could see that he had no weapons hidden on him,so they did not fire at him.
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入院と自動車学校で勉強できませんでした。 テストが間近です。お手伝いお願いします。 They told him to tell Lawrence and the Arabs that if help did not come in two days they would surrender.This was not good enough for Lawrence.The Arabs were impatient for victory and Lawrence was certain that they would not wait.They would storm Akaba and in the fighting some of them would be killed.So this time he went with the naked soldier to see the Turks.Lawrence asked to see an officer.He explained the situation to him.He said he would not be able to control the Arabs’ temper much longer.If the Turks surrendered now,they would not be killed but would be sent as prisoners to Egypt.The officer soon brought a reply. The Turks would surrender at dawn.They did.Lawrence and the Arabs rode into Akaba in triumph.They had won a great victory.But now they were all threatened with starvation.Every day there were four thousand mouths to feed.They had to start killing the camels for meat. Lawrence was exhausted.His head still ached from the fall from his camel.But he knew that he had to get food for everyone as quickly as he could.So he set off on his camel to ride across the Sinai desert to the Suez Canal.This was a journey of 250 miles,but Lawrence did it without stopping.It was a remarkable feat.For two days and two nights he ate and slept on his camel’s back.At Ismailia,on the banks of the great canal,he reported the capture of Akaba to a Royal Navy admiral he met on the railway station.The admiral,delighted with Lawrence’s success,agreed immediately to send a warship to Akaba with food and ammunition.News of the victory soon spread.People in Cairo began to ask who was this man Lawrence,who spent all his time with the Arabs.Even the French,who knew that Lawrence did not like them,gave him a medal for his bravery.And the new British general,Edmund Allenby,say that Lawrence and the Arabs might be more important than anyone realized.He called Lawrence to see him and gave him ￡200,00 in gold sovereigns to pay more Arab recruits.
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入院と自動車学校で勉強出来なくて、テストが5日後にあります。 お力をお貸しください。 Lawrence got he belts of explosive ready,but before he could begin to fix them,there was a sudden clatter of noise from high above him.One of the machine gunners had dropped his rifle. The Turkish sentry shouted a challenge,then fired his rifle at the place from where the noise had seemed to come.The other Turks came running out of the guard tent.Soon asmall battle was raging.The Arabs carrying the explosive belts knew that if a bullet hit one of the belts,it would go off and blow them to pieces.So they dumped the explosive into the gorge and ran.Lawrence followed them and within a few minutes they were all trotting away on their camels,the raid afailure. But even so in had caused confusion.The Turks hated raids like this.They did not know where the Arabs would strike next,so they had to keep lots of troops everywhere.They could not stop the trains altogether because their souldiers in desert posts depended on them for supplies.The one thing they felt sure of was that Lawrence would attack only trains.He would not risk a full-scale battle.Lawrence soon proved them wrong. If you look at the map you will find,at the top of an inlet off the Red Sea,a port called Akaba. In 1917 the Turks held it. they felt secure from an attack by Lawrence and the Arabs because it was a well-fortified port and they would be able to beat off any attempt to land troops from the landward side would be impossible because hundreds of miles of desert lay between Akaba and the nearest Arab forces.Lawrence knew that the Turks would think this,so he and the Arabs decided to do the impossible.They would march across this desert and attack Akaba from the rear. Lawrence,Auda, and thirty camel riders armed with rifles set out to persuade the desert tribesmen to join them.Lawrence carried twenty thousand gold sovereigns in his saddlebags to pay recruits.The arabs tribesmen were happy to see Lawrence and Auda.Their arrival was the occasion for a feast
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The threat never materialised, however, as the Germans were unable to complete the railway lines that were needed to support their troops in the field and the Yilderim Army Group was redirected to the Palestine front. The threat of the Yilderim Army Group spurred the British to make another attempt to take Ramadi. Control of the town was also sought in order to deny the Turks access to fresh produce from the area, which was illicitly smuggled out of the British-controlled areas, and cut the desert road to Karbala. In mid-September 1917, General Maude ordered General Harry Brooking, commander of the 15th Indian Division, to undertake the operation. The division joined Brigadier General A. W. Andrew's 50th Indian Brigade at Falluja and set up forward positions at Madhij, east of Ramadi, by 20 September. The Turks were dug in along a line of sand dunes known as the Muskaid Ridge, about 6.5 km (4 miles) to the west of Madhij. Their main defensive positions were about 1.5 km (1 mile) further west, just south of Ramadi itself. Brooking decided to mount a frontal attack from the south while using the 6th Indian Cavalry Brigade to cut off the garrison's line of retreat from the west. This would pin the Turks against the river, as there was no bridge at Ramadi. The Turks had assumed that the British would repeat the tactics they used in July and organised their defences accordingly to cover an arc running from the east to the south of the town. They expected to be able to use the road to the west to retreat if necessary. Since the July attack, the Turkish garrison had been substantially reinforced and now numbered 3,500 infantry, 500 artillery and 100 cavalry, with 10 artillery guns. Brooking carried out an elaborate series of false preparations to bolster the Turks' belief that the British would once again seek to advance along the banks of the Euphrates. A pontoon bridge was built at Madhij on 28 September, troops were encamped along the river, and friendly Arab tribes were recruited to move supplies to the riverbank opposite Ramadi. Brooking's order to commence the attack was also deliberately vague, so as to conceal the true plan of attack from any Turkish spies in Madhij.
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The Sykes-Picot agreement, where France recognised Arab independence, had been signed after the letter to King Hussein: "It is accordingly understood between the French and British Governments... that France and Great Britain are prepared to recognise and uphold an independent Arab State or Confederation of Arab States in the areas A. and B. marked on the annexed map under the suzerainty of an Arab Chief." Hence France, argued the British, by signing practically recognised the British agreement with King Hussein, thus excluding Damascus, Homs, Hama, and Aleppo from the blue zone of direct French administration in the map attached to the agreement showed that these cities were included in an independent Arab State. Pichon said France could not be bound by what was for them an unknown agreement and had undertaken to uphold "an independent Arab State or Confederation of Arab States", but this did not mean the Kingdom of Hejaz and if they were promised a mandate for Syria, it would only act in agreement with the Arab State or Confederation of States.
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The British in the sultan's capital found themselves faced by several thousand Ottoman troops and twenty guns. In addition, Arab tribesmen had rallied by the thousand to help the Ottomans. The British were backed by the few hundred men of the sultan of Lahij's native army. The Arab camp-followers of the Aden detachment deserted them in a body at the most critical hour, taking with them all their camels. Fighting opened on the evening of Sunday, 4 July. The Ottoman forces made several attacks against the British line, but each was driven off. Although after the battle the efforts of the Royal Artillery drew a tribute from General Shaw, the superior Ottoman artillery had kindled fires in different parts of Lahij, and the British were in danger of being outflanked and cut off by the Arab tribal horsemen. The sultan was killed with many of his men. When the main Aden Column never arrived, the British withdrew on 5 July with the loss of three officers wounded, but the main loss was not so much in men as in prestige.
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But London ordered Cox not to issue his proclamation, and came out with its own proclamation asking Arab leaders to aid the British administration. At the same time, the Indian colonial government had different ideas. After all, they had been the prime movers behind Mesopotamia in the first place. The British government in India wanted this new area placed under its direct control. This power struggle led to the creation of the Mesopotamian Administration Committee, under the leadership of Lord Curzon. Its main task was to determine who would govern the Basra and Baghdad provinces. Its ruling was a British, not Anglo-Indian, administration for Basra and an Arab authority for Baghdad.
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