Crusaders' Victories and Defeats: A Summary
- Crusaders in the Iberian Peninsula and Northern Europe made gains and faced defeats in their missions.
- In the Iberian Peninsula, the king of Portugal retakes Lisbon, and Raymond Berenguer IV of Barcelona conquers Tortosa.
- In Northern Europe, the Saxons and Danes fight against the Wends in the Wendish Crusade, resulting in the defeat of the Wends in 1162.
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In the Iberian Peninsula crusaders continued to make gains with the king of Portugal, Afonso I, retaking Lisbon and Raymond Berenguer IV of Barcelona conquering the city of Tortosa In Northern Europe the Saxons and Danes fought against Wends in the Wendish Crusade,although no official papal bulls were issued authorising new crusades. The Wends were finally defeated in 1162. In 1187 Saladin united the enemies of the Crusader States, was victorious at the Battle of Hattin and retook Jerusalem. According to Benedict of Peterborough, Pope Urban III died of deep sadness on 19 October 1187 on hearing of the defeat. His successor, Pope Gregory VIII, issued a papal bull named Audita tremendi that proposed a further crusade later numbered the third to recapture Jerusalem. Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor died en route to Jerusalem, drowning in the Saleph River, and few of his men reached the Eastern Mediterranean.
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イベリア半島では十字軍はポルトガル王アフォンソ1世とリスボンとトルコのレイモンド・ベレンガー4世を奪還し続けた。北ヨーロッパではサクソン人とデンマーク人がウェンディッシュ十字軍のヴェンドゥスと戦ったが、公式の教皇はいなかった新たな十字軍を認可する雄牛が発行された。 Wendsは最終的に1162年に敗北した。 1187年、サラディンは十字軍の敵を統一し、ハッテンの戦いで勝利し、エルサレムを取り戻した。 PeterboroughのBenedictによると、Pope Urban IIIは1187年10月19日に敗北を聞いて深い悲しみで亡くなりました。彼の後継者であるグレゴリー8世は、後に十字軍を後にしてエルサレムを取り戻すよう提案したアウディタ・トレメンドーと命名された教皇の雄牛を発行した。フレデリック1世、神聖ローマ帝国がエルサレムへ向かう途中で死亡し、セールフ川で溺死し、その数人の男性が東部地中海に達しました。
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The term crusade is derived from a Middle Latin cruxata, cruciata. The adjective cruciatus had been used in the sense of "marked with a cross" from the 12th century; cruciatus (also cruxatus, croxatus, crucesignatus) was used of crusaders by the mid 13th century, from their practice of attaching a cloth cross symbol to their clothing. Use of cruxata (cruciata) for "crusade, military expedition against enemies of the church" is in use by the 1280s. The French form croisade and Spanish cruzada are recorded by the 16th century. The French form of the word first appears in its historiographical sense in the 17th century[3] and it was adopted into English and German in the 18th century. The Crusades in the Holy Land are traditionally counted as nine distinct campaigns, numbered from the First Crusade of 1095–99 to the Ninth Crusade of 1271/2. This convention is used by Charles Mills in his History of the Crusades for the Recovery and Possession of the Holy Land (1820), and is often retained for convenience, even though it is somewhat arbitrary: The Fifth and Sixth Crusades led by Frederick II may be considered a single campaign, as can the Eight Crusade and Ninth Crusade led by Louis IX.
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Different perspectives of the actions carried out, at least nominally, under Papal authority during the crusades have polarised historians. To some their behaviour was incongruous with the stated aims and implied moral authority of the papacy and the crusades, in one case to the extent that the Pope excommunicated crusaders.[1] Crusaders often pillaged as they travelled, while their leaders retained control of much captured territory rather than returning it to the Byzantines. The People's Crusade included the Rhineland massacres: the murder of thousands of Jews. Constantinople was sacked during the Fourth Crusade, rendering the reunification of Christendom impossible. The crusades had a profound impact on Western civilisation: they reopened the Mediterranean to commerce and travel (enabling Genoa and Venice to flourish); consolidated the collective identity of the Latin Church under papal leadership; and were a wellspring for accounts of heroism, chivalry and piety. These tales consequently galvanised medieval romance, philosophy and literature. The crusades also reinforced the connection between Western Christendom, feudalism, and militarism.
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Under the papacies of Calixtus II, Honorius II, Eugenius III and Innocent II smaller scale crusading continued around the Crusader States in the early 12th century. There were campaigns by Fulk V of Anjou between 1120 and 1129, the Venetians in 1122–24, Conrad III of Germany in 1124 and the Knights Templar were established. The period saw the innovation of granting indulgences to those who opposed papal enemies that marked the beginning of politically motivated crusades. The loss of Aleppo in 1128 and Edessa (Urfa) in 1144 to Imad ad-Din Zengi, governor of Mosul led to preaching for what subsequently became known as the Second Crusade. King Louis VII and Conrad III led armies from France and Germany to Jerusalem and also Damascus without winning any major victories. Bernard of Clairvaux, who had encouraged the Second Crusade in his preaching, was upset with the violence and slaughter directed towards the Jewish population of the Rhineland.
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The term crusade is derived from a Middle Latin cruxata, cruciata. The adjective cruciatus had been used in the sense of "marked with a cross" from the 12th century; cruciatus (also cruxatus, croxatus, crucesignatus) was used of crusaders by the mid 13th century, from their practice of attaching a cloth cross symbol to their clothing. Use of cruxata (cruciata) for "crusade, military expedition against enemies of the church" is in use by the 1280s. The French form croisade and Spanish cruzada are recorded by the 16th century. The French form of the word first appears in its historiographical sense in the 17th century[3] and it was adopted into English and German in the 18th century. The Crusades in the Holy Land are traditionally counted as nine distinct campaigns, numbered from the First Crusade of 1095–99 to the Ninth Crusade of 1271/2. This convention is used by Charles Mills in his History of the Crusades for the Recovery and Possession of the Holy Land (1820), and is often retained for convenience, even though it is somewhat arbitrary: The Fifth and Sixth Crusades led by Frederick II may be considered a single campaign, as can the Eight Crusade and Ninth Crusade led by Louis IX.
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自分でやったりアプリでやると日本語がおかしくなるのできれいな日本語に訳せる方よろしくお願いします！！ On June 17, 1966, two black men entered a bar and grill in New Jersey, and started shooting . The bartender and one customer died instantly . Another customer died almost a month later, as a result of her wounds. A third customer survived, though he lost the use of one eye . Soon after the crime, the police stopped Rubin's car. Rubin and a friend of his were taken to the bar and grill and made to stand against the wall while their car was searched . The police then took them to the hospital and showed them to one of the victims, who said they had not been the shooters . Rubin and his friend were then taken to the police station, where they were questioned for sixteen hours. They both took lie detector tests, and were released. However, by october, the police had found witnesses who said they saw Rubin and his friend running away from the bar and grill just after the crime. One of the witnesses was Alfred Bello, an ex-convict, who had himself been questioned about the crime. The surviving customer, Willie Marins, had changed his story, and now seemed to think that Rubin and his friend were the criminals. When the case came to court, it soon became clear that everything depended on the testimony of these two witnesses. There was no fingerprint evidence, and no scientific proof that Rubin and his friend had recently fired weapons. Some ammunition was found in Rubin's car, which was similar to that used in the shooting. Marins' descriptions of the two men were vague, but Bello's testimony was damning. He said that he heard shots, and then saw Rubin and his friend leave the bar laughing, one carrying a shotgun and the other a handgun. Bello admitted that he himself went into the bar to take money out of the cash register. In spite of this, the all-white jury believed him － in less than two hours, they convicted Rubin and his friend of murder.
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Von Kressenstein succeeded in withdrawing his battered force from a potentially fatal situation; both his advance to Romani and the withdrawal were remarkable achievements of planning, leadership, staff work and endurance. Other sources put the total killed at 202, with all casualties at 1,130, of whom 900 were from the Anzac Mounted Division. Ottoman Army casualties have been estimated to have been 9,000; 1,250 were buried after the battle and 4,000 were taken prisoner. Casualties were cared for by medical officers, stretcher bearers, camel drivers and sand-cart drivers who worked tirelessly, often in the firing line, covering enormous distances in difficult conditions and doing all they could to relieve the suffering of the wounded.
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The Crusades were a series of religious wars sanctioned by the Latin Church in the medieval period, especially the campaigns in the Eastern Mediterranean with the aim of capturing Jerusalem and the Holy Land from Islamic rule, to recapture Christian territory and defend Christian pilgrims. The term "crusades" is also applied to other campaigns sanctioned by the Church, fought to combat paganism and heresy or to resolve conflict among rival Roman Catholic groups, or to gain political or territorial advantage. The term crusades itself is early modern, modelled on Middle Latin cruciatae, and has in more recent times been extended to include religiously motivated Christian military campaigns in the Late Middle Ages.
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The British continued to attempt to break through the Ottoman lines over the coming months in order to rescue their brethren in Kut, all of which were unsuccessful. In April 1916, after nearly five months under siege, Townshend finally submitted, along with 10,000 of his men, in the largest single surrender of British troops up to that time. Through mistreatment and neglect leading to starvation, nearly 5,000 British prisoners died before the end of the war. The Siege of Kut was an important Ottoman victory, greatly raising the morale of Ottoman soldiers and prestige for the Ottoman Army in the Middle East. The British government on the other hand was forced to pour more resources into Mesopotamia.
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There was a progressive improvement in horsemanship during the summer and autumn of 1916 indicated by the small number of animals evacuated from the Anzac Mounted Division after the strenuous marching and fighting from August following the Battle of Romani and during the capture of El Arish and the Battle of Magdaba. This improvement was augmented by regular inspections by administrative veterinary officers when the advice offered was followed by regimental commanders. During the year the average loss of sick horses and mules from the Sinai front was approximately 640 per week. They were transported in train loads of thirty trucks, each holding eight horses. Animals which died or were destroyed while on active service were buried 2 miles (3.2 km) from the nearest camp unless this was not practicable. In this case the carcasses were transported to suitable sites away from troops, where they were disembowelled and left to disintegrate in the dry desert air and high temperatures. Animals which died or were destroyed in veterinary units at Kantara, Ismalia, Bilbeis, and Quesna were dealt with in this way and after four days’ drying in the sun, the carcases were stuffed with straw and burnt, after the skins were salved. These were sold to local contractors.
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In 1095 at the Council of Piacenza, Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos requested military aid from Pope Urban II to fight the Turks, probably in the form of mercenary reinforcements. It is also likely he exaggerated the danger facing the Eastern Empire while making his appeal. At the Council of Clermont later that year, Urban raised the issue again and preached for a crusade. Historian Paul Everett Pierson asserts that Urban also hoped that aiding the Eastern Church would lead to its reunion with the Western under his leadership. Almost immediately thereafter Peter the Hermit began preaching to thousands of mostly poor Christians, whom he led out of Europe in what became known as the People's Crusade. Peter had with him a letter he claimed had fallen from heaven instructing Christians to seize Jerusalem in anticipation of the apocalypse. In addition to the motivations of the landed classes, academic Norman Cohn has identified a "messianism of the poor" inspired by an expected mass apotheosis at Jerusalem. In Germany the Crusaders massacred Jewish communities. The Rhineland massacres were the first major outbreak of European Antisemitism. In Speyer, Worms, Mainz and Cologne the range of anti-Jewish activity was broad, extending from limited, spontaneous violence to full-scale military attacks. Despite Alexios' advice to await the nobles, the People's Crusade advanced to Nicaea and fell to a Turkish ambush at the Battle of Civetot, from which only about 3,000 crusaders escaped.
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