The Significance of Zero and Iron Smelting in Ancient India
- The invention of zero revolutionized arithmetic and had a profound impact on daily life in ancient India.
- The counting board, similar to that used in ancient Rome, was used in ancient India to keep track of sums.
- In ancient India, the process of smelting iron was considered a crucial factor in the strength of the kingdom.
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お願いします。 The people of ancient India,like those of ancient Rome,used a counting board to keep track of sums.A counting board had columns marked off,each standing for units of 1,10,100,and so on.You put pebbles or other counters in each column to stand for your number.So far,so good,you could easily record how many pebbles were in each column.But if one of the columns was empty,things got sticky.Without zero,two ones could stand for one 100 and one 1,or one 10 and one 1,or－you get the idea.Finally,someone had the bright idea of putting a small dot(which later became a circle)wherever there was an empty column.In fact,the Sanskrit word for zero is shunya,which means“empty.” By making arithmetic easier,the invention of zero has probably had more impact on the daily lives of people than any other scientific or technological discovery from ancient India.But if you'd asked a Mauryan emperor like Chandragupta what invention was most important to the strength of his kingdom,he probably would have told you the process of smelting iron.
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古代インドの人々は、古代ローマの人々と同様、計算合計の経過を追うために、算盤を使いました。 算盤は、区切られた縦列があり、それぞれの列が1、10．100、等々の位を表わしました。 あなたは、あなたの数字を表わすために、各々の縦列に小石または他の計算に使う目印を置きました。 ここまでは、問題ないと、いくつの小石が各々の列にあるかを、あなたは簡単に記録することができました。しかし、列の1つが空であるならば、事態は厄介になりました。 ゼロがないと、2つの１が表わすのは、100と1または1と10、あるいは、― お分かりですね。 ついに、空の列がある場合はいつでも、小さな点（後で円になりました）を置くという名案を誰かが思いつきました。 実際、ゼロに対するサンスクリット語の単語は shunya（シャンニャ）で、それは「空」を意味します。 算数をより簡単にすることによって、ゼロの発明は、おそらく人々の日常生活に、古代インドの他のいかなる科学的、技術的発見よりも多くの影響を及ぼしたことでしょう。 しかし、あなたが、どんな発明が王国の強さにとって最も重要かについてチャンドラグプタのようなマウリヤ朝の皇帝に尋ねたならば、彼はあなたに鉄を溶かすプロセスだとおそらく言ったでしょう。
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お願いします (8) The village of Deir el-Medina has been called a company town. The only people who lived there were the 40 to 60 tomb builders and their families. For generations the skilled craftsmen worked on the king's tombs, cutting into the cliffs of the west bank of the Nile across the river from the ancient city of Thebes. These artisans needed to be within easy commute of the necropolis, or city of the dead, where they worked. The workmen walked to the Valley of the Kings by way of a mountain path. During the week, rather than walking all the way back to their village, the workmen stayed at a camp of stone huts they had built on a level spot along the pathway. The tiny one- or two-room huts were clustered, sharing common walls. The group of huts looked like a honeycomb. An Egyptian workweek ran ten days, so it was not unusual for the workers to stay on the job for eight days and then travel to their families in the village for the "weekend." (9) Building a village within walking distance of the Valley of Kings had its problems. The biggest surely had to be water. Water had to be carried from the floodplain up to the valley to the village. With about 68 homes at Deir el-Medina, that's a lot of water. The state supplied half a dozen water carriers. And, of course, they recorded the deliveries. For the average six-person household, each person would get about four gallons a day for drinking and bathing (not including laundry, which was done by laundrymen, whose service was also provided by the state). Toting the water must have been an annoyance, especially if the deliveries were delayed for any reason. But Deir el-Medina's misfortune turns out to be our good fortune.
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お願いします。 All that is amazing enough.What is even more amazing is that a poem he wrote when he was not much more than a teenager explains all that he knew and learned without a single number,equation,or diagram.Aryabhate wanted his information to be easy to remember.So he put all the numbers into a code of letters and combinations of letters,which he explains at the beginning of the poem,called the Aryabhatiyam.Then,in 121 verses,he explains the way the planets move in the sky better than anyone else would for 1,000 years.For Aryabhate,astronomy was a way of understanding the deities.As he wrote,“One who knows these verses,one who knows the movements of planets and celestial spheres,goes much beyond them and attains the absolute Brahman.” At first,people learned his poem and passed it on without writing it down.The fact that it wasn't written down at first may be one reason we still have it.Insects and mildew destroyed Indian manuscripts,which were written on birch bark or palm leaves,very quickly. Oddly,Aryabhate seems not to have known about India's biggest contribution to math and science,although his students did.What is it? Zero.You know－nothing.Believe it or not,no one had ever considered zero a number before.Had that ever messed up their arithmetic! If the number zero is nothing,why is it such a big deal? Because by using the number zero,people can write numbers in columns,which makes adding,subtracting,and especially multiplying and dividing much easier.
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お願い (4) The general layout of an Egyptian house was the same whether you were rich or poor―in fact, not just rich or poor, but also dead or alive, since tombs (and temples) followed the same design. If you were to visit a typical worker's home, you would pull aside the burlaplike cloth flap covering the doorway, which kept flies and dust out, and step into the entrance hall. There might be a sheep or donkey, pausing mid-chew to watch you pass though. Did a flea from the animal jump onto your head? Or did the flea jump off you onto the animal? In a hot, sandy environment fleas are a fact of life. Even though the Egyptians shaved their bodies from head to toe to keep the fleas and lice from having place to hide, they were a constant problem. It must have been difficult to fall asleep with the fleas biting. The Ebers Papyrus had many housekeeping hints to keep scratching to a minimun and pests away. "To expel fleas in a house: sprinkle it throughout with natron water. To prevent mice from approaching: fat of cat is placed on all things. To prevent a serpent from coming out of its hole...a bulb of onion is placed in the opening of the hole and it will not come out." (5) The village of Deir el-Medina was home to well-paid tomb builders. Houses had real wooden doors and doorframes carved out of limestone, often inscribed with the home owner's name. The residents painted their doors red to repel demons. Beyond the entrance, you would enter a room for receiving guests. Egyptians owned very little furniture. You might sit on a woven mat or perhaps a stool. Only the very wealthy had chairs. Homeowners placed statues of the gods into wall niches, but otherwise had none of the knickknacks modern families often like to collect. At Deir el-Medina one homeowner, concerned about leaving his valuables behind, took an inventory and asked that a house sitter watch over things while he was away. The letter gives us an idea of what a typical Deir el-Medina household might contain.
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