Mesopotamiaへの航海の危険と価値ある貨物
- 古代の船乗りは、巨大な貯蔵用の壷に水を詰め、その他の壷には乾燥したチーズ、バター、ハチミツ、ビールを詰めました。
- さらに、大きな麦と大麦の袋を船の前方に積み、そこには水に濡れる可能性の少ない場所にしました。
- 船長は、染め抜かれた白色、赤色、青色の綿の布の塊を積んでいました。また、最も貴重な貨物であるカーネリアンビーズも大切に包み、割れないようにバスケットに詰めました。
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お願いします!続き The crew filled some of the big storage jars with fresh water for the long trip,and packed the others with dried cheese,butter,honey,and beer.They stowed large sacks of wheat and barley toward the front end of the boat,where the sacks were less likely to get wet.Next to the grain,they stacked bales of cotton cloth,bleached white or dyed red or blue.The captain would have bought the cloth from traders who had floated down the shallow rivers that led to the center of the bountry on their flat-bottomed boats. As you might have guessed from Puabi's tomb,the boat's most valuable cargo was long carnelian beads.These beads were in great demand in Mesopotamia,and the captain wrapped them in soft cotton and packed them carefully in a basket so that they would not get broken during the trip. After he tied some branches from the sacred pipal tree to the mast to ward off evil spirits,the captain would have loaded his passengers:monkeys,peacocks,and sleek reddish brown gunting dogs to sell as pets,as well as a couple of traders who wanted passage to Mesopotamia. From Dholavira the captain sailed west across the delta,or the mouth,of the Indus River.With the delta behind him,he faced one of the most dangerous parts of his trip.The coast became very rocky and the crew had to watch for submerged islands as they sailed slowly through waters filled with fish and black-and-gold sea snakes.Once he had made it through that dangerous stretch,the captain could have sailed across the Arabian Sea for a quick stop along the coast of Oman,or chosen to sail directly to Mesopotamia,north through the Persian Gulf.Oman would have been a tempting side trip.The people there were willing to trade their copper,seashells,and pearls,all of which were in high demand in Mesopotamia,for the captain's wood and cotton cloth－but the first traders to arrive in Mesopotamia could charge the highest prices for their goods.
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船員は長旅のために大きい貯蔵用の壺のいくつかを淡水で満たして、他の壺には乾燥チーズ、バター、蜂蜜、ビールを詰め込みました。彼らは船の船首に向かって小麦や大麦の大きな袋を積み込みました、そこなら、袋は濡れる可能性が少なかったのです。穀物の隣には、彼らは白く漂白されたり赤や青に染められた綿の布の梱を積み重ねました。船長は、平底船に乗ってその国の中心部に至る浅い川を下って来た交易商人から布を買ったことでしょう。 プアビの墓から推測できるように、船の最も価値のある貨物は長い紅玉髄のビーズでした。これらのビーズはメソポタミアで多くの需要がありました、それで、それらが旅行の間に破損しない様に、船長は柔らかい綿でそれらを包んで、慎重にそれらを籠に詰めました。魔よけに神聖なインドボダイジュの木の枝をマストへ結びつけた後、船長は彼の乗客を乗せたことでしょう：ペットとして売るための猿、クジャク、つやのある赤褐色の猟犬、さらに、メソポタミアへの航海を望む２，３名の交易商人でした。 ドーラビラから、船長はデルタ地帯、すなわち、インダス河の河口を横切るように西へと航海しました。デルタ地帯を後にして、彼は旅の最も危険な部分の1つに向かいました。海岸は非常に岩が多くなりました、それで、魚や黒と金色のまだらのウミヘビで一杯の海をゆっくりと航海しながら、船員たちは水中に隠れた島（岩礁）に気をつけなければなりませんでした。一旦その危険な海域を上手く通過すれば、船長はオマーンの海岸沿いで短い停泊を求めてアラビア海を横切るか、ペルシャ湾を通って北に向かい、直接メソポタミアへ航海するルートを選ぶことができたでしょう。オマーンは、魅力的な立ち寄り先でした。そこの人々は船長の木材や木綿の布とその全てがメソポタミアで高い需要がある彼らの銅、貝殻、真珠を喜んで交換ました ― しかし、メソポタミアに最初に到着する交易商が彼らの商品に最も高い価格を付けることができたのです。
関連するQ&A
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お願いします! Both men and women who admired Mahavira and his teachings left their families and became monks and nuns.In fact,when Mahavira died,more than twice as many nuns as monks followed his teachings.Even today,women play an important role in Jain traditions.As mothers,they teach children how to behave and how to live a good life by not killing,stealing,or lying.Jain nuns meditate and go on journeys called pilgrimages to sacred places,take care of sacred scriptures,and teach others about the way to achieve Enlightenment. All Jains vow not to kill any living thing.This means that Jains cannot be farmers,because they would have to kill insects that destroy plants and they would kill worms when plowing the fields.Jains do not raise animals because they would have to kill the lice,vermin,and germs that livestock often suffer from.They can't be lumberjacks,because that line of work would mean that by cutting down trees they would be killing insects and hurting animals that live in the trees. Most Jains who were not monks and nuns were traders,bankers,or craftspeople who made things such as jewelry and cloth.The rich Jain merchants became patrons of the arts and paid for the construction of magnificent temples and monasteries.Many of the teachings of famous monks and nuns were written on palm leaves or painted onto birch-bark manuscripts and collected in great libraries.
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お願いします!続き After about a month of travel,the ship from Dholavira arrived at the delta of the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers.Here they paused until the captain could hire a local fisherman to help guide the ship through the treacherous channels of the delta before it arrived at last in the great city of Ur. Many people of the Indus Valley had made the trip before,and some of them had probably settled there to live.The captain most likely would have contacted a merchant originally from the Indus Valley to help convert Mesopotamian weights and measures and interpret for his Akkadian-speaking customers. The people of southern Mesopotamia may have paid for some of their goods with fine embroidered woolen shawls and blankets.They might also have traded in silver from Anatolia,which was widely used in Mesopotamia,and perhaps even in the more valuable gold bangles from Egypt.These simple,round bracelets were a convenient way to measure and carry gold,and could be melted down and made into other objects. On the slower return journey,the captain stopped at Dilmun,the island that today is called Bahrain,and traded Mesopotamian silver and textiles for pearls from the Persian Gulf.He also stopped at Magan,in what is now Oman,for copper and large,heavy seashells. Finally,around the beginning of June,the captain would have seen the long red flag at the top of his mast begin to flap in the southwesterly winds.That meant it was time to set sail and catch the winds before the monsoon became too strong.After filling the water pots,he and his crew headed east to the mouth of the Indus and the Gulf of Kutch.The whole trip took almost five months,but he was coming home with a ship full of valuable things that he could sell for a good profit in Dholavira and up the Indus River at Mohenjo Daro.
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お願いします!!続き Say you were a merchant from Oman,in what is now known as the Middle East,come to Harappa to trade alabaster vases and fine woolen cloth for shell bangles and stone beads.The first thing you would have noticed was what wasn't there－no great temples or monuments,like the ones you had seen in the cities of Mesopotamia and Persia.You probably would have thought Harappa a poor place,without the grandeur of home.But hen you would have noticed the tidy,neat streets.Even as a stranger in a strange city,you didn't have to leave extra time in case you got lost in the maze of streets every time you went to the market.The streets were straight and predictable,and quieter than you were used to.Houses weren't open to the stredt,so you didn't hear every word that people were saying inside as you walked by.Instead,the main doorway of eabh house was located along a side street and had an entryway that screened the inside from curious eyes.The windows opened onto the courtyard at its center. You'd have noticed that the city smelled better than most cities you visited.Major streets had built-in garbage bins.Each block of houses had a private well and bathrooms with drains.The small drains leading from the bathing areas and toilets emptied hnto slightly larger drains in the side streets that flowed into huge covered sewer in the main streets,big enough for people to climb inside and clean.These big city sewers emptied outside of the city wall into gullies and were washed out every year by the rains.
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お願いします!!続き People put their garbage in large clay pots stuck into the floor in rooms along the edge of the street.Some of these large jars set into the ground may have served as toilets that laborers cleaned out every so often.Most houses also had bathing areas and drains that emptied into pots or larger drains in the street. The system worked really well,as long as the merchants kept coming and paying the taxes that built the walls and drains and paid the laborers who maintained them.But by about 1900 BCE,after 700 comfortable years, things began to change.For reasons scholars still don't fully understand,fewer traders were willing to risk the dangers of traveling through desert and forest.We know there were fewer traders because archaeologists have found fewer valuable items from distant places.Because fewer traders were paying taxes,the cities could no longer afford to keep up their walls and inspectors.Changes in the course of the Indus River and its tributaries,combined with increased flooding may well have added to Harappa's problems.There may have been other reasons as well.Reasons that can only be found with further excavations.And someday,perhaps we will be able to read the Indus script.
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お願いします!!続き If they arrived in the evening or early morning,they could have seen the fires of the coppersmiths and potters along the southern edge of the city.The wind blows from the north in Harappa.Limiting furnaces to the southern side of the city meant that their sparks would be blown away from the crowded city streets.As Sarang got closer to the city,he would have realized that the wind carried more than sparks.The leather dressers also worked on the ddge of the city,and the stink of dead animals,which in some poor neighborhoods were left to rot on the street,must have bden awful. Once inside the city gates,the sights and sounds of the crowded market would most likely have overwhelmed a farm boy like Sarang.One part of the city specialized in wood carving and carpentry.Here his mother could have bought cedar chests to keep the family's clothing safe from moths and insects.Stonecutters,who made everything from drills to grinding stones to sharp stone blades,lived in another quarter.Sarang would have seen booths selling carved ivory ornaments,polished until they were smooth as butter,and inlay for wooden furniture. Jewelers clustered at the center of the market,their workbenches glittering with gold and silver pendants inlaid with precious stones.Strings of beads carved from hard stones of every color hung in the stalls of bead makers.Sarang's family may have bought beads here,but they probably could not have afforded a belt of carnelian beads.Archaeologists estimate that,given the hardness of the drill bits available to the people of Harappa,bead makers would need more than three days to drill a hole in bead three and one-half inches long.Some of the carnelian beads found on belts are almost twice as long.From start to finish,including all the stages of making a belt,it would have taken one worker more than 480 working days to complete a belt of 36 beads.No wonder archaelogists have found only three carnelian belts.
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お願いします!!続き Harappan cities were orderly,well-organized places－were they possibly controlled by kings? One clue led some early scholars to think that they might have been.The most famous stone sculpture of the Indus valley is called the Priest King.It's one of only nine stone sculptures,mostly of men,that have been found at Mohenjo Daro.All were broken and defaced,which probably means that the people they represented had lost favor.The lower half of the Priest King is missing,but most stone sculptures with a preserved,lower portion are seated with one knee bent to the ground and the other raised.People sitting in this position are seen on many of the Indus seals worshipping a deity in a tree or a figure seated in a cross-legged yoga position.This suggests that the sculpture does not represent a priest-king,as its name suggests,but instead an important clan or community leader. We know a lot about the objects Sarang and his family would have seen in the town,but many questions remain.What was the harvest festival like? Would Sarang and his family have seen dancing and heard singing? Were there plays about the deities? Or were the celebrations solemn,with fasting and prayer? We can only guess.But it's probably safe to say that Sarang would have thought that his trip to the city was one of the most exciting times of the year.
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お願いします!続き At first,no modern scholar knew where Meluhha was.Then archaeologists realized that “Meluhha”must be the Akkadian (a Mesopotamian language) word for the land we know as the Indus Valley.Harappan merchants must have brought the precious stones and beautiful dark wood to Mesopotamia.These merchants would do almost anything for a profit,including sailing to Mesopotamia on the last winds of the winter monsoon. Imagine a sea captain from Dholavira,on India's northeastern coast,making the last preparations for his annual winter voyage to Mesopotamia.The northeast winds of the retreating monsoon were picking up,and he was anxious to roll the last big pottery storage jars into the hold of his ship.Although no boats from this period have survived,we know from seals and clay models that his boat was probably made of wood and included mast,sail,and central cabin.Shallow-bottomed riverboats,which did not have masts or sails,were also made of wood or of reed waterproofed with tar－in fact,some bits of tar with the impression of reeds still survive in Oman. Our captain's crew set up a small kitchen with a cooking area in a corner of the boat protected from the wind.They hung strings of onions and garlic from the roof,and stowed small clay pots filled with ginger,salt,and spices on shelves built along the kitchen's back wall.They piled stacks of firewood and dried cow dung chips for cooking fuel on the deck,wherever they could find room in between long black beams of shisham wood(Indian rosewood) for which the Mesopotamian carpenters and shipbuilders would pay a high price.
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お願いします!!続き Other shops specialized in the ceramic art of faience,their shelves stocked with beads and bangles as welk as small bottles for perfume and medicines.Still others offered white soapstone beads and pendants,delicately fashioned inlay,and intricately carved and inscribed seals with geometric designs.At this same shop,merchants could have ordered inscribed reals with special animal designs that stood for their clan or religious beliefs. Seals show a person who talks to tigers from a thorny tree.Other seals and figurines show mother deities;a bearded,horned deity;or the ritual killing of a water buffalo.Many of these scenes include a holy man sitting on his heels and meditating in the shade of the pipal,or sacred fig,tree.Archaeologists believe that communities of holy men practiced the discipline of yoga in sacred groves outside the city walls.Sarang's family may well have gone to visit these holy men to bring them offerings as part of the harvest festival. Sarang's family certainly would have stopped in the potter's quarter to buy pots and small clay figurines for worship at the harvest festival.If Sarang had glanced into the courtyard behind any potter's shop,he might well have seen children at work.Artisans' shops were attached to their children would have helped with simple tasks,such as sweeping or fetching materials.Archaeologists have found that some of the flat clay disks that were used to cover pots have child-sized hand-and footprints pressed into them.Bead maker's children,with their small hands and good eyesight,probably also helped string tiny beads. Besides pots,potters made small figurines that were used as offerings to the deities.Even today,many Hindus use small clay or paper figures as part of their prayers and offerings to the deities.Could some of the deities they worship have come from Harappan times?No one knows.
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お願いします!! During the holidays,big cities like New York and London are even more crowded than usual.Why do people go to all the trouble and expense to travel to a big city? Because the theaters and museums and major-league sports.And even more activities than usual are going om during the holidays,like Thanksgiving and New Year's Day parades and holiday concerts and performances. The weeks after the spring and fall harvests were probably a holiday for the people of the Indus Valley civilization.Farmers,fishermen,and herders gathered their goods and their families and made the long trip to the nearest city to sell their goods and thank the deities for the bounty of the harvest.Imagine the son of a farmer who is 12 or 13－old enough to bear the two-day walk to Harappa one autumn in about 2100 BCE.We'll call this boy Sarang.Sarang would have begun the journey by helping to load the family's oxcart with the barley,wheat,and cotton that they had raised that year on their farm.He may have helped to harness the oxen that pulled the heavy load.He was probably wildly excited－and probably driven crazy by the oxen's slow pace through the wooded countryside and by the loud creaking of the cart. If they lived too far away to make the journey in single day,Sarang and his family would have set up camp with other travelers they had met along the way to help protect their goods from the bandits who hid in the forest.Eventually they would have emerged from the forest to see the walled city of Harappa in the distance,rising pale and beautiful above the plain.
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お願いします!!続き But as a pilgrim,you would probably have been most interested in the large building that today is called the Great Bath.You would go first into a small bathing area that was supplied with a well.You'd take off your outer clothes,which were dusty from your journey,and wash yourself.Once you were clean,you would move on into a large courtyard.You might walk along the roofed edges of the courtyard to better admire the sacred pool in the center.When you were ready for the bath that would clean your spirit as well as yourbody,you would walk into the large pool by one of the two wide stairways that led down into the healing water. Travelers from both Mohenjo Daro and Harappa probably would have felt least at home in Dholavira,the third major city of the Indus.Dholavira,located in what is now the modern country of India,was on an island in an inland bay far to the south of Mohenjo Daro.The farming was not good in the areas around Dholavira－the climate was too dry－so most people supported themselves by herding,fishing,and trading.To collect and store enough rainwater,the people of Dholavira built stone tanks or reservoirs that stretched over more than a third of their city. Dry Dholavira may not have had much mud,but it had lots of stone.Most of its houses and drains were made of sandstone blocks.Dholavira was the grandest of the cities,with huge walls and ceremonial gates separating the quarters was even topped by an inscription of ten symbols,each one a little more than a foot tall. Dholavira's magnificent gates couldn't change the fact that,in general,the people of the Indus Valley cities did not choose to build huge monuments to a king or religious ruler.Their cities were simple and workaday,without unnecessary flourishes or great pieces of monumental art.But towering high bbove the plain,with gleaming red-brick gateways and light gray mud-brick walls,they still must have been a commanding sight.
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