The American Civil War: A Brief Overview
- The American Civil War, which began in 1861, was a significant conflict in US history.
- The war was fought between the Union and the Confederacy, with hostilities starting when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter.
- The war saw major battles and campaigns, including Union victories in the Western Theater and the split of the Confederacy at the Mississippi River.
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Hostilities began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter. While in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention.[citation needed] Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, and seized New Orleans. The 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lee's Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg. Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grant's command of all Union armies in 1864. Inflicting an ever-tightening naval blockade of Confederate ports, the Union marshaled the resources and manpower to attack the Confederacy from all directions, leading to the fall of Atlanta to William T. Sherman and his march to the sea. The last significant battles raged around the Siege of Petersburg. Lee's escape attempt ended with his surrender at Appomattox Court House, on April 9, 1865. While the military war was coming to an end, the political reintegration of the nation was to take another 12 years of the Reconstruction Era. The American Civil War was one of the earliest true industrial wars. Railroads, the telegraph, steamships, and mass-produced weapons were employed extensively. The mobilization of civilian factories, mines, shipyards, banks, transportation and food supplies all foreshadowed the impact of industrialization in World War I. It remains the deadliest war in American history. From 1861 to 1865, it has been traditionally estimated that about 620,000 died but recent scholarship argues that 750,000 soldiers died, along with an undetermined number of civilians. By one estimate, the war claimed the lives of 10 percent of all Northern males 20–45 years old, and 30 percent of all Southern white males aged 18–40.
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南部連合軍隊がフォート・サムターに発砲したとき、交戦は1861年4月12日に始まりました。 西洋の劇場で連盟が重要な永久の利益を得る間、イースタン劇場で、戦いは1861–62で確定的でありませんでした。 メリーランドとケンタッキーへの1862年秋の南部連合キャンペーンは失敗しました。そして、奴隷解放宣言を支給される英国のintervention.［要出典］リンカーンを思いとどまらせました。そして、それは結末奴隷制度を戦争ゴールとしました。 西に、1862年夏までには、連盟は南部連合川ネイビー（そして彼らの西側の軍の多く）を破壊して、ニューオリンズを制圧しました。 ビクスバーグの1863年の連盟包囲は、ミシシッピ川で同盟を2に分けました。 1863年に、ロバートE.リーの南部連合侵略北は、ゲティスバーグのバトルのところで終わりました。 西洋の大当りは、1864年にすべての連盟軍のユリシーズS.グラントの指揮につながりました。 南部連合ポートのこれまでに締まっている海上封鎖を負わせて、連盟はすべての方向から同盟を攻撃するために資源と人的資源を組織しました。そして、海にウィリアムT.シャーマンと彼の行進にアトランタの没落に至りました。 最後の重要な戦いは、ピーターズバーグの包囲のまわりで荒れ狂いました。 1865年4月9日に、リーの脱出試みは、アポマトックス裁判所で彼の降伏で終わりました。 軍の戦争が終わる間、国の政治的な再統合に再建時代のもう12年がかかることになっていました。 南北戦争は、最も早めの本当の産業の戦争の1つでした。 鉄道、電報、汽船と大量生産の武器は、広範囲に使用されました。 一般人の工場の流動化、鉱山、造船所、銀行、輸送と食物供給は第一次世界大戦ですべて工業化の影響の兆候を示しました。それはアメリカの歴史で最も致命的な戦争のままです。 1861年から1865年まで、およそ620,000人が死んだと伝統的に見積もられました、しかし、一般人の未決定の数とともに、最近の奨学金は750,000人の兵士が死んだと主張します。 1つの予想によって、戦争は45才のすべての北男性20–の10パーセントの命を奪いました、そして、すべての南部地方の白人男性の30パーセントは18–40を古くしました。
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As foreign minister Briand formulated an original proposal for a new economic union of Europe. Described as Briand's Locarno diplomacy and as an aspect of Franco-German rapprochement, it was his answer to Germany's quick economic recovery and future political power. Briand made his proposals in a speech in favor of a European Union in the League of Nations on 5 September 1929, and in 1930, in his "Memorandum on the Organization of a Regime of European Federal Union" for the Government of France. The idea was to provide a framework to contain France's former enemy while preserving as much of the 1919 Versailles settlement as possible. The Briand plan entailed the economic collaboration of the great industrial areas of Europe and the provision of political security to Eastern Europe against Soviet threats. The basis was economic cooperation, but his fundamental concept was political, for it was political power that would determine economic choices. The plan, under the Memorandum on the Organization of a System of European Federal Union, was in the end presented as a French initiative to the League of Nations. With the death of his principal supporter, German foreign minister Gustav Stresemann, and the onset of the Great Depression in 1929, Briand's plan was never adopted but it suggested an economic framework for developments after World War II that eventually resulted in the European Union.
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Christmas Eve's battle slogan of liberation of Jelgava and all of Courland was proved to be just a slogan without serious coverage. The heavy casualties resulted in a strong resentment against the Russian generals and the Tsar among the riflemen. This resentment led to an increased support for the Bolsheviks, who were advocating an end to the war. However 12th Army Command severely punished Siberian Riflemen, who refused to go to battle - 92 of them were transferred to the war tribunal and condemned to death, and several hundred were sent to Siberia.Today Tirelis swamp and the nearby forests are part of the Museum of the Christmas Battles which in its turn is branch of Latvian museum of War. The museum was created to honour Latvian riflemen and all other soldiers who fought in the Riga front during the First World War. Many of the old trenches are still visible today, and there are also many reconstructed fortifications and bunkers.
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「タフト・ハートリー法」についてのことをまとめました。 The Taft-Hartley Act, an amendment to the Wagner Act of 1935, was designed to benefit all parties to a labor agreement—the employer, employees, and the labor union. The Act was amended to protect employees' rights from these unfair practices by unions. The Taft-Hartley Act reserved the rights of labor unions to organize and bargain collectively, but also outlawed closed shops, giving workers the right to decline to join a union. The Taft-Hartley Act also placed significant limitations on the union rights to strike and boycott. この最後の２文でまとめることできますか？ なんとなくですけど、言っていることが似たようなことな感じがするので１文にまとめられないかな？と思うんですが、どうでしょうか？ 覚えないといけないので、簡単にしていただけると嬉しいです。 よろしくお願いいたします。
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Just as the war was in the balance on the Western Front, so the fate of Luxembourg was see-sawing back and forth. It was clear to all that the good conduct of the Luxembourgish government, if fully receptive to the needs of the German military administrators, could guarantee Luxembourg's continued self-government, at least in the short-term. Eyschen was a familiar and overwhelmingly popular leader, and all factions put their utmost faith in his ability to steer Luxembourg through the diplomatic minefield that was occupation. On 4 August 1914, he expelled the French minister in Luxembourg at the request of the German minister, followed by the Belgian minister four days later and the Italian minister when his country entered the war. To the same end, Eyschen refused to speak ill of the German Zollverein, even though he had talked openly of exiting the customs union before the war began.
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The Battle of Arras (also known as the Second Battle of Arras) was a British offensive on the Western Front during World War I. From 9 April to 16 May 1917, British troops attacked German defences near the French city of Arras on the Western Front. There were big gains on the first day, followed by stalemate. The battle cost nearly 160,000 British and about 125,000 German casualties. For much of the war, the opposing armies on the Western Front were at a stalemate, with a continuous line of trenches stretching from the Belgian coast to the Swiss border. The Allied objective from early 1915 was to break through the German defences into the open ground beyond and engage the numerically inferior German Army in a war of movement. The British attack at Arras was part of the French Nivelle Offensive, the main part of which was to take place 50 miles (80 km) to the south. The aim of this combined operation was to end the war in forty-eight hours. At Arras the British were to divert German troops from the French front and to take the German-held high ground that dominated the plain of Douai.
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英文の和訳で困っています 和訳を教えていただきたいです よろしくお願いします！！ In fact, Moscow’s readiness to take part in negotiations in Western capitals was minimal, even though the events in the GDR before 17 June were seen to reflect completely the Soviet intention of pressing for a Four Power conference on the German question. The actual losers were the weakest element in the game: the Germans behind the Iron Curtain and all those who had hoped for the restoration of Germans unity. The planned summit of the Big Three in 1953 was reduced to a conference of the three Western foreign ministers. He had been convinced that the West could negotiate with the Soviets based on a ‘position of strength’ in order to ward off the danger of an nuclear war.
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The opening weeks of Briand's ministry required him to broker an agreement between General Gallieni, the new War Minister, and General Joffre, newly (2 December) promoted to “Commander-in-Chief of the French Armies” (generalissimo) over all theatres apart from North Africa. In the poisonous atmosphere after the opening of the German attack at Verdun (21 February 1916), Gallieni read an angry report at the Council of Ministers on 7 March criticising Joffre's conduct of operations over the last eighteen months and demanding ministerial control, then resigned. He was falsely suspected of wanting to launch a military takeover of the government. Briand knew that publication of the report would damage morale and might bring down the government. Gallieni was persuaded to remain in office until a replacement had been agreed. General Roques was appointed after it had been ensured that Joffre had no objections.
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Medina, an Islamic holy city in Arabia, underwent a long siege during World War I. Medina was at the time part of the Ottoman Empire. In the war, the Ottoman Empire sided with the Central Powers. Sharif Hussain of Mecca betrayed and revolted against the caliph and the Ottoman Empire which, under the leadership of the secular and nationalistic Young Turks, had ignored the wishes of the Caliph and sided with the Central Powers. Hussain instead sided with the British Empire. T. E. Lawrence was instrumental in this revolt. Hussain occupied Mecca and besieged Medina. It was one of the longest sieges in history that lasted till even after the end of war. Fahreddin Pasha was the defender of Medina. He was called "the Lion of the Desert" by the British press for his patriotism in Medina. The siege lasted two years and seven months.
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The Treaty of Trianon was the peace agreement of 1920 that formally ended World War I between most of the Allies of World War I and the Kingdom of Hungary, the latter being one of the successor states to Austria-Hungary. The treaty regulated the status of an independent Hungarian state and defined its borders. It left Hungary as a landlocked state that covered 93,073 square kilometres (35,936 sq mi), only 28% of the 325,411 square kilometres (125,642 sq mi) that had constituted the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary (the Hungarian half of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy). Its population was 7.6 million, only 36% of the pre-war kingdom's population of 20.9 million. The areas that were allocated to neighbouring countries in total (and each of them separately) had a majority of non-Hungarians but 31% of Hungarians (3.3 million) were left outside of post-Trianon Hungary. Five of the pre-war kingdom's ten largest cities were drawn into other countries. The treaty limited Hungary's army to 35,000 officers and men, and the Austro-Hungarian Navy ceased to exist. The principal beneficiaries of territorial division of pre-war Kingdom of Hungary were the Kingdom of Romania, the Czechoslovak Republic, and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. One of the main elements of the treaty was the doctrine of "self-determination of peoples", and it was an attempt to give the non-Hungarians their own national states. In addition, Hungary had to pay war reparations to its neighbours. The treaty was dictated by the Allies rather than negotiated, and the Hungarians had no option but to accept its terms. The Hungarian delegation signed the treaty under protest on 4 June 1920 at the Grand Trianon Palace in Versailles, France. The treaty was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on 24 August 1921. The modern boundaries of Hungary are the same as those defined by the Treaty of Trianon, with some minor modifications until 1924 and the notable exception of three villages that were transferred to Czechoslovakia in 1947.The Hungarian government terminated its union with Austria on 31 October 1918, officially dissolving the Austro-Hungarian state. The de facto temporary borders of independent Hungary were defined by the ceasefire lines in November–December 1918. Compared with the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary, these temporary borders did not include: Part of Transylvania south of the Mureş river and east of the Someş river, which came under the control of Romania (cease-fire agreement of Belgrade signed on 13 November 1918). On 1 December 1918, the National Assembly of Romanians in Transylvania declared union with the Kingdom of Romania. Slovakia, which became part of Czechoslovakia (status quo set by the Czechoslovak legions and accepted by the Entente on 25 November 1918).
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Hindenburg and Ludendorff forced a return to the policy of unrestricted submarine warfare on 9 January 1917 and engineered the dismissal of the Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg and other opponents of the policy the next day. The policy was to resume on 1 February, with the intention of sinking 600,000 long tons (610,000 t) of shipping per month and knocking Britain out of the war in 5–12 months. Optimistic claims by the navy were less important to the decision, than the "desperate" position of the western armies and the decrepitude of Germany's allies. Another front in the west was to be opened by the resumption of air attacks on Britain. New aircraft had become available to replace airships, which had become too vulnerable to British counter-measures in 1916. Planning began in late 1916 and Operation Türkenkreutz began in May 1917. As part of the defensive strategy for the Western Front, five defensive positions were planned to form the basis of the Abwehrschlacht (defensive battle) expected in 1917.
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