Capotoriti's definition of a minority and its implications
- Capotoriti's definition of a minority includes four empirical criteria and one legal criterion. The empirical criteria involve numerical size, non-dominance, distinctive characteristics, and cultural preservation. The legal criterion requires citizenship. However, this criterion can be problematic for certain groups, such as the Roma.
- There is a grammatical construction involving 'being' in Capotoriti's definition. It can be considered a form of the present subjunctive, expressing a hypothetical situation. The phrase 'one legal criterion, that they be citizens of the state in question' follows this construction. However, the preceding part of the sentence has a different form.
- The use of 'decide if' in relation to the Roma can be questionable, as there may already be a conclusion regarding their minority status. Additionally, the mention of 'reference to empirical characteristics' suggests that the state has the arbitrary power to determine minority status without considering empirical evidence. As for 'empirical characteristics,' they refer to traits related to numbers, dominance, ethnicity, language, and religion.
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Capotoriti's definition of a minority includes four empirical criteria---a group's being numerically smaller than the rest of the population of the state; their being nondominant; their having distinctive ethnic, linguistic, or religious characteristics; and their desiring to preserve their own culture---and one legal criterion, that they be citizens of the state in question. This last element can be problematic, given the previous nomadic character of the Roma, that the still cross borders between European states to avoid persecution, and that some states have denied them citizenship, and thus minority status. Because this element essentially grants the state the arbitrary right to decide if the Roma constitute a minority without reference to empirical characteristics, it seems patentl unfair that it should be included in the definition. 所有格＋beingと使われていますがこれは文法でいうとどういう用法ですか？仮定法現在でしょうか？ one legal criterionのあとのthey beは仮定法現在っぽいのですがその前と形が違うので違うのかなと思ったのですが。。 また、decide if のifは～かどうか、という意味ですがRomaに関してはもう結論は出されている（minorityではない）ので、～かどうか、というのはおかしくないでしょうか？後ろでもempirical characteristicsのreferenceなしに...とありますし。（ところでempirical characteristicsはどういうcharacteristicsでしょうか。。）
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that they be ... これは that の後なので節です。 だから動名詞にはなっていません。 仮定法現在ですが、 suggest/demand の後などで使われるおなじみのものです。 イギリス英語なら should 原形 「～すべき」的な意味で理解してもいいのですが、 「～するように」提案する みたいに、あくまでも提案であって、実現していないところが仮定法ですが、 仮定法過去のような非現実の表現とは少し違います。 criterion なので、現実にそうだ、という表現ではないのでしょう。
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- wind-skywind
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所有格は動名詞の意味上の主語です。 日本語でいうと、「彼の若いこと」みたいな表現で「彼の本」が所有格＋名詞になるように、 所有格＋動名詞となっています。 A group Is numerically smaller ... They are non dominant They have distinctive ... という文や節とする代わりに、 主語を「～の」という所有格、動名詞の意味上の主語として 全体を名詞化して表現しています。 definition なので、文とせず、名詞のかたまりとしているわけです。 minority の定義として 「数が少ない」という文で書かず、 「数の少ないこと」のような表現で書いています。
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動名詞の意味上の主語だったんですね...通りでなんとなくみおぼえがあったような気がしました。。名詞化して羅列してあったんですね。ありがとうございました！
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The German Navy sent their first submarines to the Mediterranean in response to the Anglo-French Dardanelles campaign, after it became obvious that their Austro-Hungarian allies could do little against it with their small submarine force, which nevertheless was successful in defending the Adriatic. The first U-boats sent, U-21 and the two small coastal boats, UB-7 and UB-8, achieved initial success, U-21 sinking the Royal Navy predreadnought battleships HMS Triumph and HMS Majestic on 25 and 27 May respectively on her way to Constantinople, but ran into severe limitations in the Dardanelles, where swarms of small craft and extensive anti-submarine netting and booms restricted their movements. By the end of June 1915, the Germans had assembled a further 3 prefabricated Type UB I submarines at Pola, two of which were to be transferred to the Austrian Navy. They were also assembling three Type UC I minelaying submarines, which were ordered converted into transports to carry small quantities of critical supplies to Turkey.
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Further west, the inhabitants of areas recently conquered or seized by European powers from the Ottoman Empire, exploited the unsettled conditions caused by the war in Europe, to regain control of their lands. Uprisings took place in Morocco and Niger against the French colonialists, some of which lasted longer than the First World War. In Sudan, hostilities took place between the Anglo-Egyptians and the Sultan of Darfur, who was believed to have prepared an invasion of Egypt, to be synchronised with Senussi operations on the western frontier. Operations by the British were conducted by small numbers of men equipped with motor vehicles, aircraft and wireless, which multiplied their effectiveness and enabled them frequently to surprise their opponents by the speed of their manoeuvres.
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The Ottoman High Command failed to make up the losses of 1915. The war in Gallipoli was using all the resources and manpower. The IX, X and XI Corps could not be reinforced and in addition to that the 1st and 5th Expeditionary Forces were deployed to Mesopotamia Campaign which did not show signs of ending soon. Ottoman High Command recognizing the dire situation on other fronts, decided that this region was of secondary importance. As of January 1916, Ottoman forces were 126,000 men, only 50,539 being combat soldiers. There were 74,057 rifles, 77 machine guns and 180 pieces of artillery. Many of the guns which were supposed to defend the city had been moved to Gallipoli to counter the British forces. The guns that were left in the region were older weapons and not in very good condition. The soldiers were not in good condition. They suffered from inadequate food as was typical of many Turkish soldiers at that time. Ottoman forces in the Caucasus Campaign were big on paper, but not on the ground. Another source claim that 78,000 troops were in this region, perhaps associating the number of rifles to actual soldiers.
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If I don't like living here,I will soon leave andeither go back to my own country of find another country where I can be more comfortable. It is true that some foreigners come to Japan to live but find that,after a short while, they don't like it and so decide to leave. But it seems to me that these people are few and the causes for their unhappiness in Japan are usually to be found in their own characters and not Japan itself. 和訳をお願いします＞＜ この英文の前にも文章がありますが、hereは「ここ」などと訳してもらって構いませんので。
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It was a day of stubborn and often heroic actions by platoons, sections and even individuals isolated from their comrades by the fragmented nature of the battle and lack of visibility. The greatest danger facing the British on 22 March was that the Third and Fifth armies might become separated. Byng did not order a retirement from the Flesquières salient, which his army had won at such cost and Haig ordered him to keep in contact with the Fifth Army, even if that required a further retreat; the day also saw the first French troops enter the battle on the southern flank. Small parties of British troops fought delaying actions, to allow those to their rear to reach new defensive positions. Some British battalions continued to resist in the Battle Zone and delay the German advance, even managing to withdraw at the last moment. At l'Épine de Dallon the 2nd Wiltshire battalion held out until 14:30 and at "Manchester Hill", the garrison of the 16th Manchesters commanded by Lieutenant-Colonel Wilfrith Elstob, fought until he was killed at 16:30 Directly to their rear was the "Stevens Redoubt", of the 2nd Battalion of the Bedfordshire Regiment, to which the survivors retired. The redoubt was reinforced by two companies of the 18th King's and attacked from all sides after the units on the flanks had been pushed back. The Bedfords were ordered to retire just as their ammunition ran out and retreated through the lines of the 20th Division, having lost half their number. The longest retreat was made in the XVIII Corps area, where the corps commander General Ivor Maxse, appeared to have misinterpreted an order from Gough for a fighting retreat if necessary, to mean that the corps should fall back to the Somme. The Germans brought heavy artillery into Artemps under the cover of the morning mist, which forced the remaining battalions of the 109th Brigade (36th Division) to retreat to join the 108th Brigade at Happencourt. The result of the misunderstanding between Gough and Maxse and different interpretations placed on telephone messages and written orders, was that the 36th Division retired to Sommette-Eaucourt on the south bank of the Canal de Saint-Quentin, to form a new line of defence. This required the Division to cross the Canal at Dury.
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Casualties and aftermath 120 Turkish troops were killed in the battle and another 190 were wounded. 3,456 prisoners were captured by the British, including 145 officers. A handful of members of the garrison escaped by swimming the Euphrates. British casualties numbered 995, though many of these had been only slightly wounded due to the Turkish shrapnel bursting too high to be of much effect. A great deal of materiel was seized, including 13 artillery pieces, 12 machine guns and large quantities of ammunition and other supplies. The capture of Ramadi also led to the local Arab tribes switching sides and supporting the British. Maude later called the action "an instance of as clean and business-like a military operation as one could wish to see." The fall of the town was so sudden that on the day after the battle a German pilot attempted to land at Ramadi before he realised who now occupied it and made a hasty escape. The town was deemed sufficiently secure that on the following day, the British decided to continue their advance to assault Hīt, the next major Turkish-held town on the Euphrates. The Battle of Broodseinde was fought on 4 October 1917 near Ypres in Flanders, at the east end of the Gheluvelt plateau, by the British Second and Fifth armies and the German 4th Army. The battle was the most successful Allied attack of the Battle of Passchendaele. Using "bite-and-hold" tactics, with objectives limited to what could be held against German counter-attacks, the British devastated the German defence, which prompted a crisis among the German commanders and caused a severe loss of morale in the German 4th Army. Preparations were made by the Germans for local withdrawals and planning began for a greater withdrawal, which would entail the loss for the Germans of the Belgian coast, one of the strategic aims of the British offensive. After the period of unsettled but drier weather in September, heavy rain began again on 4 October and affected the remainder of the campaign, working more to the advantage of the German defenders, being pushed back on to far less damaged ground. Broodseinde ブルードサインデ
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When the Australians reached the Ottoman trenches they found them roofed with pine logs with no easy entrance, which had not been identified by aerial reconnaissance during the planning stages. As the Ottoman defenders recovered from the artillery barrage, they began firing at the Australians through specially cut holes at point blank range. As the second and third waves of the attack came up, some of the Australians fired, grenaded and bayoneted from above, while some found their way inside through gaps or by lifting the logs, which were in places as thick as 4 inches (10 cm) by 9 inches (23 cm). Others ran on past to the open communications and support trenches behind, where they were able to gain access to the trenches; about 70 Ottoman troops were captured as they attempted to escape and ran into the Australians entering the trenches. Small groups of Australians managed to push through to The Cup where they were stopped by Ottoman troops who were hastily assembled to defend their regimental headquarters. In the ensuing fighting there, almost all of the Australians were killed, while a handful were taken prisoner. In the Ottoman trenches, the darkness and cramped conditions led to considerable confusion amongst the attackers. Due to concerns of shooting their comrades, the Australians were unable to fire their rifles initially, and the fighting devolved into a melee as the soldiers attacked each other with bayonets and grenades. The first Australians to enter the position were picked off by the defenders, but as the Australians established themselves in strength, they were able to break into the position before the defenders that had been sheltering in the tunnels behind the front line were able to fully respond. Over the space of half an hour the Australians took control of the position and, after ejecting the remaining Ottomans from the main trench, they established a number of defensive positions along the line. These amounted to positions in the communication trenches on the flanks of the captured ground and about seven or eight posts in the centre that were "isolated" but connected by hastily dug saps. For the Australians, the attack had been successful, as they had gained possession of the main Ottoman line, and after being halted at The Cup they began preparing to defend their gains. Hastily erecting sandbag barriers along the parapet, they settled down to wait for the first counterattack. As they did so, the brigade reserve—the 1st Battalion—was brought up. Due to crowding in the tunnels that had been used for the attack, the reinforcements were sent via the open ground that had been in front of the old Ottoman positions; despite being behind the recently captured position, the ground was still subjected to heavy Ottoman artillery and machine-gun fire, which was being poured down from positions in overwatch on the flanks.
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以下に英文(一部省略)とその和訳(うまく訳せてない箇所)を書きます。全体的な文意がわからず、下記にある訳が微妙です。回答をどうぞよろしくお願いします。 The fact that modern man is constantly moving in-to new environments gives the impression that he is enlarging the range of his biological adaptab-ilities and thus escaping from the bondage of h-is past. This is only an appearance. Wherever he goes, and whatever he does, man is successful on-ly to the extent that he functions in a microen-vironment not drastically different from the one under which he evolved."具体説明の省略"There is no hope whatever that man's biological nature c-an be changed enough to enabl-e him to survive w-ithout the earth's atmosphere; in fact, the very statement of this possibility is meaningless. Ho-mo sapiens achieved his characteristics as a bio-logical species more than 100,000 years ago, and his fundamental biological characteristics could not be drastically altered without destroying h-is very being. He developed his human attribute-s, in the very act of responding to the environ-ment in which he evolved. The earth has been his cradle and will remain his home. (3)どこへ行こうと何をしようと、人は自らが進化したものと少しだけ異なる微環境で、単にどれほどの役目を果たすかに依って成功する。(8～10)ホモ＝サピエンスは自らの特徴を１０万年前よりも多く存在する？生物種として確立？した。そして人の本質的な生物学的特徴はその人間そのもの？を破壊しないと、徹底的には変化しない。人は、自らが進化した環境に応じるというまさしくその行動で、自らの人性を発達させた。
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The mournful truth that a man — every man-must die alone, had been thrust sharply into my mind and kept there by the frequent violent attacks of my malady I suffered at that time, every one of which threatened to be the last. （中略） Then my mother died. Her perfect health failed her suddenly, and her decline was not long. But she suffered much, and on the last occasion of my being with her at her bedside she told me that she was very tired and had no fear of death, and would be glad to go but for the thought of leaving me in such a precarious state of health and with a mind distressed. Even then she put no questions to me, but only expressed the hope that her prayers for me would be answered and that at the last we should be together again. I cannot say, as I might say in the case of any other relation or friend, that I had lost her. （中略） It came to me as a great surprise a few years ago to have my secret and most cherished feelings about my own mother expressed to me as I had never heard them expressed before by a friend who, albeit still young, has made himself a name in the world, one who had never known a mother, she having died during his infancy. ＜最後のIt came to me～の英文について＞： It came to me as a great surprise a few years ago～のasは「～として」ですか？ as I had never heard them expressed ～のasは「～のように」ですか？ （themはmy secret and most cherished feelings ？） my own mother expressed to me as I had never heard them expressed before by a friend のところの意味がよくわからないのですが、 expressedの取り方は、 my own mother expressed to me私自身の母親が私に表現した、 I had never heard them expressed私はそれらが表現されるのを決して聞いたことがない、 ですか？ she having died during his infancyここは独立分詞構文で、「彼女は彼の幼年時代に亡くなってしまったので」？ ----Far Away and Long Ago :W.H.Hudson
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(2-21)It still revolved around superstition, but of a mild variety, with quaint rituals indicating things such as whether a lover was being faithful or would become a future marriage partner. (1)was being faithfulでwas beingを使うのはなぜでしょうか? (2-23)Between 1900 and 1910 some nine million immigrants came to America, drawn by the conviction that in this land of opportunity they would find what the old country had denied them. (2)conviction thatのthatは何用法でしょうか? What they found in America severely tested their faith- and their courage and stamina as well. (3)whatは、the things whichに置き換えられると理解していますが、whatを使うときの考え方について教えていただきたいです。 (2-25)The answer came the following year, when a three-hour, $1,900,000 extravaganza called Intolerance opened at New York City's Liberty Theatre. (4)year, when～のように、whenの前にカンマをつけるのはなぜでしょうか? "Intolerant is so colossal gorgeous, and stunning to the mind that words fail," wrote the NY Tribune, and the NY Evening Post called it "the highest achievement which the camera has recorded." (5)to the mind that words～でthatが使われているのはなぜでしょうか? (2-28)The real music was being produced in relative obscurity. (6) was being producedで、beingが使用されているのはなぜでしょうか? (2-40)Their intention was to distinguish themselves from German, Italian, Sicilian and other immigrants who had arrived later. (7) was to distinguishのように、be動詞+to不定詞になるのはいつでしょうか? Today many Cajuns still live in and around New Orleans and cling to their old customs and French dialect. (8)and cling to～は、Cajuns areが省略されているのでしょうか? Native New Orleanians may speak with a southern drawl or a Cajun-French accent, in a pattern that curiously resembles the speech often associated with sections of NY city. (9)in a pattern that curiously～のthatは、関係代名詞でしょうか?
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なるほど、仮定法現在はまだ起きてはいないから、という点で”仮定”なんですね。ありがとうございました。