適切な投与方法により、薬剤の選択的作用を発揮する
- 薬剤の投与方法には、それぞれ特定の目的、利点、欠点があります。
- 口からの投与は最も一般的な方法であり、液体や固形の薬剤が消化管から体内に吸収されます。
- 舌下経口投与は効果の発現が非常に速いが、効果の持続時間が短い場合が多いです。また、吸収は不完全で効果も予測できないことがあります。
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For a pharmaceutical agent to be effective in carrying out its selective action, the drug must be administered in an appopriate manner. Each route of drug administration has specific purposes, advantages, and disadvantages. With this method, drugs formulated in liquid or solid form are absoebed into the body from the gastrointestinal tract(GIT). This is the most commonly used route. Oral drugs are convenient --- portable, oainless, easy to take. Also, administration can be carried out by the patient him or heself. However, the onset of the drug's effect is relatively slow. In this case, the drug, usually in tablet form, is placed under the tongue. This produces a very fast onset of drug action because of the good blood supply to the area, but the duration of the drug's effect is usually short. This method can be used for patients who are unable to take drugs orally, or with younger children, elderly, or mentally disturbed patients. This route is usuful when a drug is known to cause GIT irritation. However, absorption is often incomplete and effectiveness is unpredictable.
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以下のとおりお答えします。 2,3誤植がありましたので、一応原文もすべて併記いたします。 ＞For a pharmaceutical agent to be effective in carrying out its selective action, the drug must be administered in an appopriate (→appropriate) manner. Each route of drug administration has specific purposes, advantages, and disadvantages. 調剤取扱者が選択的な行動を実践する際に効果的であるために、薬は適切な方法で管理されなければならない。薬剤管理には、その個々のルート（吸収の道筋）に応じて特有の目的、利点、および不利益が存している。 ＞With this method, drugs formulated in liquid or solid form are absoebed(absorbed) into the body from the gastrointestinal tract(GIT). This is the most commonly used route. Oral drugs are convenient --- portable, oainless (→painless), easy to take. Also, administration can be carried out by the patient him or heself (→herself). However, the onset of the drug's effect is relatively slow. この方法によって、液状または堅固の形状に整えられた薬剤が、胃腸の部位（GIT）から身体に吸収される。これは、最も一般的に使われるルートである。経口薬は簡易で…携行に便利で、無痛で、摂取しやすいからである。また、薬剤管理が患者自身によって実践可能である。しかし、薬剤の効果の発現は相対的に遅い。 ＞In this case, the drug, usually in tablet form, is placed under the tongue. This produces a very fast onset of drug action because of the good blood supply to the area, but the duration of the drug's effect is usually short. この場合薬剤は、通常タブレット（舌下錠）形にして、舌の下に置かれる。これは、その部位の血液供給がいいので、きわめて早い薬剤効果の発現を生み出すけれども、薬剤効果の継続時間は通常短い。 ＞This method can be used for patients who are unable to take drugs orally, or with younger children, elderly, or mentally disturbed patients. This route is usuful when a drug is known to cause GIT irritation. However, absorption is often incomplete and effectiveness is unpredictable. この方法は、薬を口から飲むことができない患者や、弱年齢の子供、年配者または精神的に阻害のある患者用に使われうる。薬剤が、GIT（胃腸）障害を起こすことが知られている時には、このルートが有益である。しかし、吸収はしばしば不完全で、その有効性は予測不可能である。 以上、ご回答まで。
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Subcutaneous (SC) route. There are few blood vessels in the fatty tissue just below the dermis, so absorption is slow but usually complete. Thus, this route is suitable when slow and continuous absorption is required, as with insulin or allergy shots. Topical drugs are applied directly to the skin or mucous membranes of the eye, ear, nose, or mouth. This method is employed when a local effect of the drug is desired.
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For millennia, humans have used plants and herbs as medicines. Ginger, for example, is used to relieve nausea, vomiting and other gastrointestinal symptoms; rhubarb is good for constipation; Saint John's wort eases depression and anxiety. While cultures around the world have greatly benefited from the pharmacological ingredients in these and other herbs for treating various disorders, the Chinese have been especially successful at developing their own traditional medical practices over several thousand year. Japan adapted these practices durig the 4th or 5th century and created its own unique herbal medical diagnosis and treatment system called Kampo. Kampo is the most commonly employed form of alternative medicine in Japan. According to a recent survey, about 75% of Japanese physicians have prescribed Kampo drugs as part of their treatment. This increasing interest in Kampo comes from a simple fact: Kampo drugs have been producing promising results in patients. In Kampo treatment, physicians see a disease condition as the manifestation of "imbalances" within the body. Symptoms of various illnesses are thought to result when the body's energy, known as qi, is out of balance. Kampo physicians examine a patient's eyes, tongue, abdomen and pulse. A Kampo diagnosis takes into account different body types and the symptom patterns of each patient, so patients with the same illness are not always prescribed the same Kampo formulas. This is in contrast to Western medicine, where the same drug is used for a specific disease affecting large numbers of people. In this respect, Kampo drugs can be called trailormade drugs. Kampo drugs are carefully balanced combinations of several herbs based on formulas found in ancient Chinese literature on medicine. This makes Kampo drugs quite different from Western drugs, which usually consist of a single ingredient in standard doses, and from folk remedies, where generally only one herb is used. Combined together, the ingredients in a Kampo drug restore the balance in the affected organ or metabolic system, harmonizing the disrupted qi while counteracting any potential side effects. With these unique characteristics, Kampo can be considered a viable alternative when Western drugs do not produce the desired effect.
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Approximately 42000 new cases of tuberculosis were reported in Japan in 1997. That marked the first increase in 38 years. Tuberculosis cannot be called a disease of the past any longer. Tuberculosis is a contagious bacterial disease that usually affects the lungs. In many cases, the body's immune system destroys the bacteria before it does much damage: only a scar or spot is left on the lungs as evidence of the infection. Sometimes, however, the infection spreads and causes a variety of symptoms, including coughing, fatigue, fever, sweating at night, loss of appetite, and weight loss. The bacteria may also pass from the lungs through the lymphatic system to the bones and joints, kidneys, or brain and spinal cord. Occasionally, the bacteria remain dormant in the lungs for years, flaring up again to do further damage. Left untreated, tuberculosis may eventually cause death. A tuberculosis patient is usually treated with two to four antituberculous drugs. The reason multiple drugs are administered is that this helps overcome the danger that the bacteria may develop resistance to one of the drugs. The drugs act either by directly killing the bacteria or by preventing them from multiplying. Some antituberculous drugs may cause adverse side effects, such as nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. Because of this, special care is needed when taking these drugs. Drug treatment normally continues until the symptoms have subsided and laboratory investigations such as sputum tests have shown the person to be clear of infection. The treatment usually takes a long time, sometimes more than a year. Conditions in Japan now suggest that the nation is at a critical point inits fight against tuberculosis. There has been a vast increase in the number of patients infected by multiple-drug-resistant strains. One reason for this is that many TB victims did not complete their treatment and, consequently, the bacteria that remained became resistant to current medications. Now, a great deal of research is under way to develop drugs effective against multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis. It is hoped that the advent of such drugs will represent the final victory in the fight against this stubborn, troublesome disease.
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Not too long ago, most people thought that contracting HIV was a certain and swiftt death sentence. After several decades of experience with this deadly disease, however, medical scientists have found drugs and treatment strategies that now allow HIV patients to live years or even decades with the disease. It is essential for those who have contracted HIV to be diagnosed early so that monitoring and treatment can begin as soon as possible. The scientific community has accepted that the cause of AIDS is HIV. Once an individual has been infected with HIV, the virus quickly attacks the infection-fighting soldiers in our immune system, called T-cells. Damage to these cells slowly destroys the body's ability to fight disease. After infection with HIV, a person may be symptom-free for years, but eventually the number of HIV viruses in the body(his/her "vital load") will increase, while the number of his/her T-cells will decrease, weakening the person's ability to fight disease. Advanced HIV infections (OIs), which are serious infections from bacteria, viruses, or fungi that our body would normally be able to fend off. Through research and experience, scientists have learned the importance of tracking the viral load of HIV in the body as well as the patient's T-cell count. It is essential to suppress the viral load early in the disease cycle while maintaining and boosting the level of T-cells, allowing patients to fight off OIs. There are powerful drugs and drug mixtures now available that are doing this with increasing effectiveness. With this therapy, many patients with HIV have been able to live long periods of time without developing ALDS. Some of the drugs that have been effective in fighting AIDS are: zidovudine(AZT), nevirapine, and a class of drugs known as HIV protease inhibitors. Although these new drug therapies can delay the advance of HIV in the body, the virus will eventually overcome the immune system and the patient will develop AIDS and die. Today's science can only slow the progression of the disease. However, with each new day, new discoveries are made and patients are living longer and longer. Doctors are hopeful that in the near future HIV-infected people will be able to live a totally normal lifespan.
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It was long thought that peptic ulcers were caused by stress or spicy foods. This common belief was eventually refuted in 1983, when Dr.Barry J. Marshall and Dr. J. Robin Warren made a startling breakthrough. In 2005, they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their "discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) and its role in gastriris and peptic ulcer disease." Although this bacterium was known to scientists as early as 1875, it was not initially associated with peptic ulcers because it was believed that no organism could live in the acidic environment of the stomach. The H. pylori bacterium, however, is one of the few organisms that can survive in such an environment thanks to the ammonia it secretes. The discovery that peptic ulcers are caused by the colonization of these organisms in the stomach suggested that peptic ulcers could be cured simply be getting rid of the bacteria. When an ulcer is found, the doctor performs a biopsy to determine whether the ulcer is cancerous or caused by the presence of H.pylori bacteria. If tests confirm that the ulcer is H.pylori-related, it is treated with drugs - two kinds of antibiotics - that kill the bacteria. Other drugs used to treat peptic ulcers include H2 blockers, proton pump inhibitors, and antacids. These drugs reduce or neutralize the production of stomach acid, thereby promoting healing whatever the cause may be. H2 blockers are the pillar of the ulcer treatment. When histamine binds with H2 receptors, gastric acid secretion is stimulated. H2 blockers prevent this binding, and hence, prevent acid secretion. Proton pump inhibitors are the strongest of the drugs that suppress acid production by halting the mechanism that pumps the acid into the stomach. Antacids raise the pH level to reduce acid damage, and sucralfate is used to protect the stomach lining. Formerly, patients with peptic ulcers underwent surgical procedures to remove the ulcers, but the discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori and its role in gastritis and peptic ulcers disease, coupled with the development of new drugs over the past 20 yesrs, has allowed 90% of patients to be cured of H.pylori-related peptic ulcers without any surgical procedures. These drugs are always used in combination because, when used alone, they neither H. pylori nor cure the ulcers, which may lead to the recurrence of the disease. Marshall and Warren's discovery, along with these revolutionary new drugs, is making life far less painful for thousands of ulcer sufferers.
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Chemotherapy drugs act by interfering with the metabolism or replication of rapidly diving cancer cells. Surprisingly, the first drug used for chemotherapy was mustard gas, a chemical weapon from World War I. In the 1940s, scientists accidentally discovered that exposure to mustard gas inhibited rapid cell division and slowed some kinds of cancers, giving rise to the new medical field of chemotherapy. Once in the bloodstream, most chemotherapy drugs are non-specific in their attack on rapidly dividing cells. This means that while these drugs attack cancer cells, they can also attack other rapidly dividing cells in the body as well. The cells in your blood, mouth, intestinal tract, nose, nails, and hair are also undergoing constant, rapid division, and can suffer serious damage from the treatment. Doctors usually treat cancers with combination therapy, utilizing a mixture of two or more drugs. Combination therapy improves treatment effectiveness because the cancer cells have less chance of building resistance to several chemotherapy drugs. Drug resistance is a major concern in chemotherapy because drugs sometimes become ineffective when cancer cells are no longer affected by the drugs. There are several classes of drugs that are used in chemotherapy: Antibody-based therapies: There new drugs are able to target cancer cells. They represent a promising future in cancer treatment because they spare most of the beneficial cells in the body, and thus have fewer side effects. Antitumor antibiotics: There drugs bind with DNA in active cancer cells and prevent the synthesis of ribonucleic acid(RNA), which is imperative for cell survival. Alkylating agents: These agents add alkyl groups to strategic positions on the cancer DNA strand, making the strands unable to uncoil, thus halting cell division. Antimetabolites: These drugs alter the function of enzymes required for cell metabolism and protein creation, thereby starving cells to death and preventing division. Mitotic inhibitors: These drugs, derived from plants, stop cell reproduction by inhibiting cell division and blocking the use of certain proteins required for mitosis. Doctors and scientists are hard at work to make chemotherapy drugs more effective with fewer side effects. The day may be near when certain types of cancer will be successfully treated through chemotherapy with little or no incidental harm to the body.
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Methylation is a chemical process in which a methyl(CH3)group is added to an atom or molecule. The resulting compound does not usually dissolve in water and is more easily absorbed into organisms such as plankton. Methylmercury is very dangerous because it enters the food chain as soon as it is absorbed into plankton. Next, it ends up in a fish that eats the contaminated plankton. After the contaminated fish is eaten by another fish, the methylmercury stays in the surviving fish's flesh, and the cycle may be repeated over and over. Once the mercury reaches the top of the food chain, for example in a 300-kilogram tuna, it will stay there for the rest of the fish's life. As a result, people are very worried about the effect of eating fish that are high on the food chain or very old. These fish may have very high accumulations of mercury, and thus may be dangerous to eat. Fish that are lower on the food chain, or younger, are seen as safer. As the article makes clear, an important first step is to discover the exact nature of the ocean's mercury methylation process. After the process is understood, it may be possible to control it. Until we can reduce the amount of mercury that accumulates in the ocean, it would be advisable to avoid fish that may be high on mercury, wouldn't it?
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下部のExcept when~~~ からの一文がどう訳してよいか分からないので、そちっらだけでもよろしかったらお願いします。 The freezing point of normal human plasma averages -0.54℃,which corresponds to an osmolal concentration in plasma of 290 mOsm/l. This is equivalent to an osmotic pressure against pure water of 7.3 atm. The osmolality might be expected to be higher than this, because the sum of all the cation and anion equivalents in plasma is over 300.It is not this high because plasma is not an ideal solution and ionic interactions reduce the number of particles free to exert an osmotic effect. Except when there has been insufficient time after a sudden change in composition for equilibrium to occur, all fluid compartments of the body are in (or nearly in) osmotic equilibrium. The term tonicity is used to describe the osmolality of a solution relative to plasma.
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送られてきた以下の英語のメール文が上手く読めません。途中までは訳してみたのですが、だんだん難しくなり、途中から全く分からなくなりました。英語に堪能な方、どうかよろしくお願いします。 ーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーー 1. ACT in general is an organization of teachers and non-teaching personnel, from pre-school to colleges and universities. Most of the members are from the public schools that is more than 500,000 nationwide. We have chapters in all (17) regions in the country. It is in the Philippine Constitution that public servants have the right to unionize and in 1987, there was the Executive Order 180, that created the Public Sector Labor Managemant Council. It was only recently, September, 2011 to be exact, that the government thru Civil Service Commision has come up with a clear guidelines on how public school teachers will be unionized. The main essence is that public school teachers can form union on a regional basis. With this, we registered our very union in the National Capital Region (ACT-NCR union) then gained our recognition from the government last Septembr 17, 2012. We are now in the process of negotiation with the Deped NCR. In fact, we already had 2meetings with them. Our Davao region is already in the process of registration. Soon other regions will follow. We are the only teachers organization that is already officially registered and recognized. 2. The ACT-Ncr union is more or less 26t members out of 50t. Membership campaign is on going. Over all we have, 40t members. Trade unions in the Phil are separate from teachers. And also private schools have different unions (school to school basis) 3. Some of our major issues are a. Increasing of education budget from 3% to 6% of the GDP like all other countries. So that shortages in the number of teachers, rooms, chairs, toilets and sanitation facilities will be addressed b. Adequate , decent and living wages for teachers and non-teaching personnel. At present, the minimum salary of teachers in the public school is $464. c. Increase budget for the state colleges and universities d. Basic education curriculum that is relevant to the needs of the people and national development. We are campaigning for education that is scientific, mass oriented and nationalistic. e. Implementation of the laws in education that is related to the benefits of teachers like RA 4760 Magna Carta for Public School Teachers, RA 8790 GSIS Law, etc Hope that this explation helped.
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An automated external defibrillator (AED) is a portable electronic device that automatically diagnoses the life-threatening cardiac arrhythmias of ventricular fibrillation and ventricular tachycardia in a patient, and is able to treat them through defibrillation, the application of electrical therapy which stops the arrhythmia, allowing the heart to reestablish an effective rhythm. With simple audio and visual commands, AEDs are designed to be simple to use for the layperson, and the use of AEDs is taught in many first aid, certified first responder, and basic life support (BLS) level cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) classes. An automated external defibrillator is used in cases of life-threatening cardiac arrhythmias which lead to cardiac arrest. The rhythms that the device will treat are usually limited to: 1.Pulseless Ventricular tachycardia (shortened to VT or V-Tach) 2.Ventricular fibrillation (shortened to VF or V-Fib) In each of these two types of shockable cardiac arrhythmia, the heart is electrically active, but in a dysfunctional pattern that does not allow it to pump and circulate blood. In ventricular tachycardia, the heart beats too fast to effectively pump blood. Ultimately, ventricular tachycardia leads to ventricular fibrillation. In ventricular fibrillation, the electrical activity of the heart becomes chaotic, preventing the ventricle from effectively pumping blood. The fibrillation in the heart decreases over time, and will eventually reach asystole. AEDs, like all defibrillators, are not designed to shock asystole ('flat line' patterns) as this will not have a positive clinical outcome. The asystolic patient only has a chance of survival if, through a combination of CPR and cardiac stimulant drugs, one of the shockable rhythms can be established, which makes it imperative for CPR to be carried out prior to the arrival of a defibrillator. Uncorrected, these cardiac conditions (ventricular tachycardia, ventricular fibrillation, asystole) rapidly lead to irreversible brain damage and death, once cardiac arrest takes place. After approximately three to five minutes in cardiac arrest, irreversible brain/tissue damage may begin to occur. For every minute that a person in cardiac arrest goes without being successfully treated (by defibrillation), the chance of survival decreases by 7 percent per minute in the first 3 minutes, and decreases by 10 percent per minute as time advances beyond ~3 minutes. AEDs are designed to be used by laypersons who ideally should have received AED training. However, sixth-grade students have been reported to begin defibrillation within 90 seconds, as opposed to a trained operator beginning within 67 seconds. This is in contrast to more sophisticated manual and semi-automatic defibrillators used by health professionals, which can act as a pacemaker if the heart rate is too slow (bradycardia) and perform other functions which require a skilled operator able to read electrocardiograms. Bras with a metal underwire and piercings on the torso must be removed before using the AED on someone to avoid interference. American TV show Mythbusters found evidence that use of a defibrillator on a woman wearing an underwire bra can lead to arcing or fire but only in unusual and unlikely circumstances. A study analyzed the effects of having AEDs immediately present during Chicago's Heart Start program over a two-year period. Of 22 individuals 18 were in a cardiac arrhythmia which AEDs can treat (Vfib or Vtach). Of these 18, 11 survived. Of these 11 patients, 6 were treated by bystanders with absolutely no previous training in AED use.
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