The Revival of Science in the 16th Century
- The 16th century saw the revival of science and the challenge of long-established beliefs.
- The Ptolemaic system of astronomy, which placed the Earth at the center of the universe, was challenged by Copernicus.
- The Church became involved in the disputes between the new school of thought and the old doctrines.
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On the revival science in the 16th century,some of the earliest conclusions at which philosophers arrived were found to be at variance with popular and long-established belief.The Ptolemaic system of astronomy ,which had then full possession of the minds of men,contemplaced the whole visible universe from the earth as the ammovable centre of things. Copernicus changed the earth to an inconspicuous globule, a merely subordinate member of a family of planets , which the terrestrials had untill then foudly imagined to be but [but=only]pendants and ornaments of their own habitation. The Church naturally took a lively interest in the disputes which arose between the philosophers of the new school and those who adhered to the old doctrines,inasmuch as the Hebrew records,the basis of religious faith,manifestly countenanced the opinion of the earth's immobility and certain other views of the univers very incompatible with those propounded by Copernicus. Hence arose the official proceedings against Galileo in consequence of which he submitted to sigh his celebrated recantation,acknowledging that the sun is the centre of the world and immovable from its place is absurb,philosophically false,and formally heretical,because it is dxpressly contrary to the Scripture'and that 'the proposition that the earth is not the centre of the world,norimmovable but that it moves and also with a diurnal motion is absurb,philosophically false,and at least erronesos in faith'.
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以下のとおりお答えします。誤植と思しき語句がいくつかありましたので、原文を訂正した上で、添付いたします。なお、都合により、一連の文章を３つの段落に分けて、段落ごとに原文と訳文とを列挙しておきます。 On the revival science in the 16th century, some of the earliest conclusions at which philosophers arrived were found to be at variance with popular and long-established belief. The Ptolemaic system of astronomy, which had then full possession of the minds of men, contemplated the whole visible universe from the earth as the immovable centre of things. Copernicus changed the earth to an inconspicuous globule, a merely subordinate member of a family of planets, which the terrestrial had until then foundry imagined to be but [but = only] pendants and ornaments of their own habitation. (contemplaced→contemplated, ammovable→immovable, untill→until, foudly→foundry) 16世紀に復活した科学においては、哲学者の到達した最初期の結論のうちのいくつかが、長期間確立されていたはやりの確信とは食い違いがあることが分かった。当時の人々の心にしっかり根づいていたプトレマイオス天文学体系は、不動の中心としての地球から見える全体を宇宙と見ていた。コペルニクスは、地球を一介の小さな球、単に惑星系に従属する１つの構成員ということに変更した。それまで地球人は、惑星を自分の住居のペンダントや装飾品の製造場に過ぎないと想像していたのである。 The Church naturally took a lively interest in the disputes which arose between the philosophers of the new school and those who adhered to the old doctrines, in as much as the Hebrew records, the basis of religious faith; manifestly countenanced the opinion of the earth's immobility and certain other views of the universe very incompatible with those propounded by Copernicus. 当然ながら、教会は新しい学派の哲学者たちと古い教義を信奉する人々との間に生起した論争に強い関心を抱いた。それは、信仰の基礎にあるヘブライ人の記録に対する興味と同じくらいであった。そして、地球が動かないことやある種の宇宙の見方にはっきりと賛成したのだが、それはコペルニクスによって提示されたものとはまったく適合しないものだった。 Hence arose the official proceedings against Galileo in consequence of which he submitted to sigh his celebrated recantation, acknowledging ‘that the sun is the centre of the world and immovable from its place is absurd, philosophically false, and formally heretical, because it is expressly contrary to the Scripture and that the proposition that the earth is not the centre of the world, no removable but that it moves and also with a diurnal motion is absurd, philosophically false, and at least erroneous in faith’. (absurb→absurd（２か所）, dxpressly→expressly, norimmovable→no removable, erronesos→erroneous) したがって、ガリレオが嘆息しつつ撤回を提出したあの有名なできごとに起因して、彼に反対する公式議事録ができたのであった。その際彼は次のことを認めた。すなわち、「太陽が世界の中心であって、その場に定着してそこから動かないというのは明らかに聖書に反するので、不合理であり、哲学的に誤りであり、形式上は異教的であること、地球は不動の世界の中心などでなく、それは移動し、日周運動するという提案は不合理であり、哲学的に誤りであり、少なくとも信仰上は誤りである」、ということを認めたのであった。
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The word beginning,' he says, as applied by Moses in the first verse of the book of Genesis, expresses an undefined period of time which was antecedent to the last great change that affected the surface of the earth, and to the creation of its present animal and vegetable inhabitants, during which period a long series of operations may have been going on; which as they are wholly unconnected with the history of the human race, are passed over in silence by the sacred historian, whose only concern was barely to state, that the matter of the universe is not eternal and self-existent, but was originally created by the power of the Almighty.' The Mosaic narrative commences with a declaration that in the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.' These few first words of Genesis may be fairly appealed to by the geologist as containing a brief statement of the creation of the material elements, at a time distinctly preceding the operations of the first day; it is nowhere affirmed that God created the heaven and the earth in the first day, but in the beginning; this beginning may have been an epoch at an unmeasured distance, followed by periods of undefined duration during which all the physical operations disclosed by geology were going on.' The first verse of Genesis, therefore, seems explicitly to assert the creation of the universe; the heaven, including the sidereal systems; and the earth, especially specifying our own planet, as the subsequent scene of the operations of the six days about to be described; no information is given as to events which may have occurred upon this earth, unconnected with the history of man, between the creation of its component matter recorded in the first verse, and the era at which its history is resumed in the second verse: nor is any limit fixed to the time during which these intermediate events may have been going on: millions of millions of years may have occupied the indefinite interval, between the beginning in which God created the heaven and the earth, and the evening or commencement of the first day of the Mosaic narrative.'
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This earth apparently so still and steadfast,lying in majestic repose beneath the aestherial vault,is a globular body of comparatively insignificant size, whirling fast through space round the sun as the centre of its orbit, and completing its revolution in the course of one year, while at the same time it revolves daily once about its own axis,thus producing the change of day and night. The sun,which seems to lead up each morning from the east and, traversing the skyey bridge,slides down into the west,is relatively to our earth motionless. In size and weight it inconceivably surpasses it. The moon,which occupies a position in thr visible heavens only second to the sun and far beyond that[that=the position]of every other celestial body in conspicuousness, is but a subordinate globe,much smaller our own, and revolving round the earth as it's centre,while it accompanies it [it=the earth]in its[its=the earth's]yearly revolutions about the sun.Of itself it has no luster and is visible to us only by the reflected sunlight.
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It might be thought to have been less easy to reconcile in men's minds the Copernican view of the opening chapter of Genesis.It can scarcely be aside that thin chapter is not intended in part to teach and convey at least some physical truth, and taking it's words in their plain sense,it manifestly gives a view of the universe adverse to that of modern sciences. It represents the sky as a watery vault in which the sun,moon and stars are set.But the discordance of this description with facts does not appear to have been so palpable to the minds of the seventeenth century as it is to us.The mobility of the earth was a proposition startling not only to faith but to the senses.The difficulty involved in this belief having been successfully got over ,other discrepancies dwindled in importance .The brilliant progress of astronomical science subdued the minds of men;the controversy between faith and knowledge fell to slumber ; the story of Galileo and the Inquisition become a school commonplace ,the doctrine of the earth's mobility found it's way into children's catechisms , and the limited views of the nature of the universe indicated in the Old Testment ceased to be felt as religious difficulties.
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In one respect the theory of Hugh Miller agrees with that advocated by Dr. Buckland and Archdeacon Pratt. Both these theories divest the Mosaic narrative of real accordance with fact; both assume that appearances only, not facts, are described, and that in riddles, which would never have been suspected to be such, had we not arrived at the truth from other sources. It would be difficult for controversialists to cede more completely the point in dispute, or to admit more explicitly that the Mosaic narrative does not represent correctly the history of the universe up to the time of man. At the same time, the upholders of each theory see insuperable objections in details to that of their allies, and do not pretend to any firm faith in their own. How can it be otherwise when the task proposed is to evade the plain meaning of language, and to introduce obscurity into one of the simplest stories ever told, for the sake of making it accord with the complex system of the universe which modern science has unfolded? The spectacle of able and, we doubt not, conscientious writers engaged in attempting the impossible is painful and humiliating. They evidently do not breathe freely over their work, but shuffle and stumble over their difficulties in a piteous manner; nor are they themselves again until they return to the pure and open fields of science.
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We may fairly ask,' he argues, of those persons who consider physical science a fit subject for revelation, what point they can imagine short of a communication of Omniscience at which such a revelation might have stopped without imperfections of omission, less in degree, but similar in kind, to that which they impute to the existing narrative of Moses? A revelation of so much only of astronomy as was known to Copernicus would have seemed imperfect after the discoveries of Newton; and a revelation of the science of Newton would have appeared defective to La Place: a revelation of all the chemical knowledge of the eighteenth century would have been as deficient in comparison with the information of the present day, as what is now known in this science will probably appear before the termination of another age; in the whole circle of sciences there is not one to which this argument may not be extended, until we should require from revelation a full development of all the mysterious agencies that uphold the mechanism of the material world.' Buckland's question is quite inapplicable to the real difficulty, which is, not that circumstantial details are omitted -- that might reasonably be expected -- but that what is told, is told so as to convey to ordinary apprehensions an impression at variance with facts. We are indeed told that certain writers of antiquity had already anticipated the hypothesis of the geologist, and two of the Christian fathers, Augustine and Episcopius, are referred to as having actually held that a wide interval elapsed between the first act of creation, mentioned in the Mosaic account, and the commencement of the six days' work. If, however, they arrived at such a conclusion, it was simply because, like the modern geologist, they had theories of their own to support, which led them to make somewhat similar hypotheses.
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The hypothesis adopted by Dr Buckland was first promulgated at a time when the gradual and regular formation of the earth's strata wasn't seen or admitted so clearly as it is now. Geologists were more disposed to believe in great catastrophes and sudden breaks. Buckland's theory supposes that, previous to the appearance of the present races of animals and vegetables,there was a great gap in the globe's history—that the earth was completely depopulated as well of marine as land animals; and that the creation of all existing plants and animals was coeval with that of man. This theory is by no means supported by geological phenomena, and is we suppose, now rejected by all geologists whose authority is valuable . Thus writes Hugh Miller in 1857, 'I certainly did once believe with Chalmers and with Buckland that the six days were simply natural days of twenty-four hours each, that they had comprised the entire work of existing creation, and that the latest of the ages was separated by a great chaotic gap from our own. My labours at the time as a practical geologist had been very much restricted to the palaeozoic and secoundary rocks, more especially to the old red and Carboniferous systems of the one division and the oolitic system of the other ;and the long-extinct organisms which I found in them certainly didn't conflict with the view of Chalmers. All I found necessary at the time to the work of reconciliation was some scheme that would permit me to assign to the earth a high antiquity and to regard it SSS scene of many succeeding creation. During the last nine years, however, I have spent a few weeks every autumn in exploring the late formations, and acquainting myself with their particular organisms.
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Our earth then is but one of the lesser pendants of a body[a body=the sun]which is itself only an inconsiderable unit in the vast creation.And now if we withdraw our thoughts for the immensities of space and look into the construction of man's obscure home,the first question is whether it has ever been in any other condition than that in which we now see it,and if so,what are the stages through which it has passed,and what was its first traceable state. Here geology steps in and successfully carriers back the history of earth's crust to a very remote period,until it arrives at a region of uncertainty,where philosophy is reduced to mere guesses and possibilities and pronounces nothing definite. To this region belong the speculation which have been ventured upon as to the original conccretion of the earth and planets our of nebular matter of which the sun may have been the nucles.
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The Romish Church,it is presumed,adheres to the old views to the present day. Protestant instincts,however,in the 17th century were strongly in sympathy with the augmentation of science[science=scientific knowledge],and consequently Reformed Churches more easily allowed themselves to be helped over the difficultly,which, according to the views of inspiration then held and which have survived to the present day,was in reality quite as formidable for them as for those of the old faith. The solution of the difficultly offered by Galileo and others was that the object of a rebelation or divine unveiling of mysteries must be to teach man things which he is unable and must ever remain unable to find out for himself:but not physical truths,for the discovery of which he has faculties specially proved by his Creater.Hence it was not unreasonable that,in regard to matters of fact marely,the Sacred Writings should use the common language and assume the common belief of mankind,without purporting to correct errors upon points morally indifficult.So in regard to such a text as 'The world is established it cannot be moved'[Psalms93.1],though it might imply the sacred penman's ignorance of the fact that the earth does move,yet it does not put forth this opinion as an indispensable point of faith.And this remark is applicable to anumber of texts which presents a similar difficalty.
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The Hebrew race, their works, and their books, are great facts in the history of man; the influence of the mind of this people upon the rest of mankind has been immense and peculiar, and there can be no difficulty in recognising therein the hand of a directing Providence. But we may not make ourselves wiser than God, nor attribute to Him methods of procedure which are not His. If, then, it is plain that He has not thought it needful to communicate to the writer of the Cosmogony that knowledge which modern researches have revealed, why do we not acknowledge this, except that it conflicts with a human theory which presumes to point out how God ought to have instructed man? The treatment to which the Mosaic narrative is subjected by the theological geologists is anything but respectful. The writers of this school, as we have seen, agree in representing it as a series of elaborate equivocations -- a story which palters with us in a double sense.' But if we regard it as the speculation of some Hebrew Descartes or Newton, promulgated in all good faith as the best and most probable account that could be then given of God's universe, it resumes the dignity and value of which the writers in question have done their utmost to deprive it. It has been sometimes felt as a difficulty to taking this view of the case, that the writer asserts so solemnly and unhesitatingly that for which he must have known that he had no authority. But this arises only from our modern habits of thought, and from the modesty of assertion which the spirit of true science has taught us. Mankind has learnt caution through repeated slips in the process of tracing out the truth.
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Mental Evolution in Animals(1883). In the family of the sciences Comparative Psychology may claim nearest kinship with Comparative Anatomy; for just as the latter aims at a scientific comparison of the bodily structures of organisms, so the former aims at a similar com parison of their mental structures. Moreover, in the one science as in the other, the first object is to analyze all the complex structures with which each has respectively to deal. When this analysis, or dissection, has been completed for as great a number of cases as circumstances permit, the next object is to compare with one another all the structures which have been thus analyzed; and, lastly, the results of such comparison supply, in each case alike, the basis for the final object of these sciences, which is that of classifying, with reference to these results, all the structures which have been thus examined.
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