Cicero's Political Journey
- When Cicero was elected consul in 63 BCE, he opposed the populares and tried to create an alliance of the rich against the poor.
- Cicero's old friend Pompey deserted him and made new alliances, causing Cicero to warn him about his old enemies.
- Cicero stayed loyal to Pompey and fought at his side in a civil war between Pompey and Caesar, but after Caesar's victory, he pardoned Cicero.
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お願いします (15) When Cicero was elected consul in 63 BCE, he was conceited enough to believe that his consulship would be the turning point for the ailing Republic. Could its troubles all be over? He thought so. Once elected, he opposed the populares, who supported the reforms of the Gracchi brothers. He spoke for the aristocrats in the Senate and tried to create an alliance of the rich─nobles and businessmen─against the poor. One popularis politician, Lucius Catiline, organized a rebellion. Cicero squelched it and executed the rebel leaders without a trial. He later paid a high price for his actions. His enemies watched and waited. In the end, Cicero's old friend Pompey deserted him and made new alliances. Cicero told him: “You have given us a strong hope of peace. We have this good news because of you. And I've told everyone so. But I must warn you that your old enemies are now posing as your friends.” (16) Pompey paid no attention to Cicero's words. By 60 BCE, he had teamed up with the popularis politician Julius Caesar and the millionaire Crassus. The three formed a triumvirate and shared the power among themselves. Together, they controlled the Senate, the people...Rome itself. Many Romans, including Cicero, were shocked to learn of it. But, arrogant as ever, Cicero refused to cooperate with this First Triumvirate. He called it “a three- headed monster.” Now Cicero's longtime enemies saw their chance, and they persuaded the Assembly to banish Cicero from Rome. Later Pompey intervened on his behalf, and Cicero was called back in 57 BCE. (17) Cicero stayed loyal to Pompey and fought at his side when a civil war broke out between Pompey and Caesar. Caesar won and became the most powerful man in Rome. After Pompey's death, Caesar pardoned Cicero and allowed him to return to his beloved Rome.
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(15) キケロが、紀元前63年に執政官に選ばれたとき、彼が執政職に就いたことが、病んでいる共和国の分岐点になると信じるほど、彼はうぬぼれていました。ローマの抱える問題は、すべて終わりをつげるのでしょうか？ 彼は、終わると思いました。ひとたび選出されると、彼は、ポプラレスに反対しました、なぜならば、彼らが、グラックス兄弟の改革を支持したからでした。キケロは、元老院で貴族を代弁して、貧しい者に対して、金持ち ─ すなわち、貴族と実業家 ─ の同盟をつくろうとしました。 ポプラレスの政治家の一人、ルキウス・カティリニが、反乱を組織しました。キケロはその反乱を抑え込み、裁判をせずに反乱の首謀者を処刑しました。彼は、後に、その行動に対して大きな代償を払うことになりました。彼の敵は、じっと成り行きを見守っていました。結局、キケロの旧友のポンぺイウスは、彼を見捨てて、新しい同盟の一員になりました。キケロは、彼に言いました：「そなたは、我々に平和の強い希望を与えた。そなたのおかげで、我々には、この良き知らせがある。そして、余は、皆にそう伝えたり。しかし、そなたの宿敵が、今は、そなたの友人のふりをしていると、余はそなたに警告せずばなるまい。」 (16) ポンぺイウスは、キケロのことばに注意を払いませんでした。紀元前60年までには、彼はポプラレスの政治家ジュリアス・シーザーと大富豪クラッススと協力関係を築いていました。三人は、三頭政治を組織して、権力を彼ら自身で分けあいました。力を合わせて、彼らは、元老院、人民、... ローマそのものを支配しました。多くのローマ人が、キケロを含めて、それを知って衝撃を受けました。 しかし、相変わらず尊大であった、キケロは、この第一次三頭政治と協力することを拒みました。彼は、それを「三つの頭を持つ怪物」と呼びました。今や、キケロの長年の敵は、彼らの好機を見出しました、そして、彼らは、議会を促して、キケロをローマから追放させました。後に、ポンぺイウスが、彼のために仲介者となって、キケロは、紀元前57年に呼び戻されました。 (17) ポンぺイウスとシーザーの間で内戦が始まったとき、キケロは、ポンぺイウスに対する忠誠を変えず、彼の味方となって戦いました。 シーザーが、勝利を収めて、ローマで最も権力を持つ男になりました。ポンぺイウスの死後、シーザーは、キケロに特赦を与え、彼が、彼の愛するローマに戻るのを許しました。
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お願いします (16) Pompey would have liked more time to train his troops; they were not as battle- ready as Caesar's army. When Caesar's troops entered Italy, Pompey's soldiers panicked and many deserted. Pompey gathered what troops he could and escaped from Rome just before Caesar arrived. Caesar had Pompey on the run. (17) Caesar entered Rome for the first time in nine years. He found the government in chaos. Again, he didn't hold back but set to work right away. He asked the Senate to join forces with him to avoid more bloodshed. He chose Mark Antony as his chief lieutenant─next in command. Then, delegating power to other trusted generals, Caesar himself set out for Greece. There he defeated Pompey's army in 48 BCE. (18) Plutarch reports that when Caesar saw the dead Romans lying on the field, he groaned and said: “They made this happen;they drove me to it.” (19) News of Caesar's victory was greeted back home with wild excitement. His popularity soared, and Rome elected him to a second consulship. (20) Meanwhile Pompey had escaped to Egypt, arriving in the midst of a civil war between 15-year-old King Ptolemy XIII and his older sister, Cleopatra VII. Ptolemy believed that Caesar would follow his rival to Egypt, and he was right. So he prepared a surprise for the general. Hoping to please Caesar and lure him to his side against Cleopatra, Ptolemy's advisors captured Pompey and cut off his head. Then they pickled it in brine. They expected Caesar to be delighted, but they were wrong. (21) When Caesar arrived in Egypt, Ptolemy presented Caesar with Pompey's pickled head─the head of the noble Roman who had been his rival but also his friend and former son-in-law. Disgusted and pained, Caesar turned away and wept. He commanded that Pompey's body be buried with honor. And he ordered the execution of the Egyptians who had murdered a great leader of the Roman people.
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お願いします (22) Caesar then restored Cleopatra to her throne and defeated her brother in battle. On his way back to Rome, Caesar passed through Asia. There, he squashed a rebellion in Asia Minor (modern Turkey). In a letter to a friend, he made light of the victory. The letter had only three words: “Veni, vidi, vici.” (“I came, I saw, I conquered.”) Plutarch says that this brief message matched “the sharpness and speed of the battle itself.” Caesar's fans later made placards with these three words written on them, which they carried in his triumphal procession into Rome. (23) When Caesar returned to Rome, he was proclaimed dictator. Then he began the work of healing Rome's terrible war wounds. He gave 100 denarii to every citizen and pardoned his own enemies, even those who had supported Pompey against him, including Cicero and Brutus. (Caesar was especially fond of Brutus. In his youth, Caesar had been in love with Brutus's mother, and he always looked out for her son. Brutus did not return the favor.) (24) During four years of almost absolute power, Caesar passed many laws to control debt, reduce unemployment, and regulate traffic in Rome. He levied taxes on foreign imports to boost Rome's economy. He put unemployed Romans to work building a new Forum and a large public building named in his family's honor: the Basilica Julia. He planned the first public library and built embankments along the Tiber to protect the city against floods. He revised the old Roman calendar, replacing it with the one that we use today, beginning with January. (25) Julius Caesar was perhaps the most extraordinary of all ancient Romans─a senator, military leader, and dictator of Rome. But he was also a poet, a brilliant historian who wrote about his military victories, and the only orator of his day who could compete with Cicero. His personal charm brought him the loyalty of men and the love of women.
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お願いします (6) On March 15, the day known in Rome as the Ides of March, Caesar went to a meeting of the Senate. As usual, he had no bodyguards. On the way, a soothsayer─a “truth teller” who can tall the future─stopped him with a warning: “Caesar, beware the Ides of March.” (The Romans called the middle day of the month the “Ides”; it usually fell on the 15th.) The dictator ignored him and walked on. But when he arrived at the meeting place, a group of senators─mostly old friends and men he had pardoned and promoted─surrounded him. They quickly closed in and, drawing their knives, began to stab him. Bleeding from 23 brutal wounds, Caesar fell and died at the base of a statue he had commissioned: a statue of Pompey─his rival and friend. (7) Who was this man who stirred such a powerful mix of love, admiration,fear, and hatred? (8) Julius Caesar was born into a noble family, but he always supported the rights of the common people. He was the plebeian's favorite politician. They believed that he understood and cared about their needs. He did, but he was no saint. He was practical, strong willed, and hungry for power. Street-smart, he made very few mistakes, and he knew how to take advantage of the mistakes of his enemies. (9) In 60 BCE, Julius Caesar wanted to become a consul, but he was broke. He had already spent everything he had (or could borrow) to pay for his political career up to that point. He needed money and he needed help. So he made a bargain with two other men who also needed something: Cicero's friend Pompey and Crassus, the richest man in Rome. The three formed the First Triumvirate.
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お願いします (5) Although he was still an inexperienced teenager, Octavius was suddenly a public figure. He would soon be plunged into the cutthroat world of Roman politics. His mother and stepfather saw how dangerous this could be. They tried to persuade him to stay away from Rome. But Octavius was determined, and he set out to claim his inheritance. As a first step, he took his adoptive father's name and combined it with his own birth name. He became Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus. (6) Rome, meanwhile, was in the hands of Caesar's deputy, Mark Antony. He had seen the assassination and moved quickly to grab power. Octavian was not yet in Rome, so Antony delivered Caesar's funeral oration. His speech helped to persuade people that the dictator's assassins were the enemies of Rome. With lightning speed, Antony took over Caesar's money, property, and all of his official papers. (7) This was not what Caesar had wanted. In his will, he promised a generous gift of money to every Roman citizen. But Antony refused to honor the murdered hero's wish. (8) When Octavian reached Rome, he honored his great-uncle by giving his own money to the citizens. With the help of Cicero's speeches and with Caesar's veterans marching behind him, Octavian earned the support of the Senate. Not only was he elected to the Senate, he also became a consul─even though, according to Roman law, he was too young to hold these offices. Octavian bragged about it when he later wrote his memoirs.
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お願いします (21) During his own lifetime, Cicero was known as a great statesman, orator, and man of action. But he died a bitterly disappointed man. He had failed to do what he most wanted to accomplish: to save the Roman Republic. Not even Cicero's enemies, though, could doubt his love for Rome. Plutarch, writing many years after Cicero's death, tells a story about Octavian─after he had risen to great power as the emperor Augustus Caesar. The emperor found his grandson reading a book written by Cicero. Knowing that his grandfather had agreed to let Mark Antony's soldiers murder Cicero, “The boy was afraid and tried to hide it under his gown. Augustus...took the book from him, and began to read it.... When he gave it back to his grandson, he said,‘My child, this was a learned man, and a lover of his country.’”
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お願いします (13) By 50 BCE, the Triumvirate had ended. Crassus had been killed in battle, and Pompey had become very jealous of Caesar's military success and his great popularity. Pompey had married Caesar's daughter, Julia, but when she died in childbirth, the bond between the two men was broken. Before Caesar returned from Gaul, Pompey sided wit the Senate to declare his former father-in-law an enemy of the State. The Senate demanded that Caesar give up his army and return to Rome. Knowing that he would be arrested if he obeyed, he refused. But now his life and career were at stake. Did he dare go back to Italy at all? (14) In January of 49 BCE, Caesar's forces were camped just north of the Rubicon, the river that marked the boundary between Gaul and Ital. As soon as Caesar heard the Senate's ruling, he slipped away from the camp with a few trusted men. It was night, and everyone else was feasting. No one noticed that he was missing. When he reached the banks of the Rubicon, he paused, thinking about his next step. After a moment, he declared, “The die is cast” and crossed the river. This was his way of saying that his mind was made up and wouldn't be changed. Now he was ready to meet his former ally, the great general Pompey, in battle. (15) Caesar was never one to stand around, waiting for someone else to do something. Decisive as always, he began his march right away. He set out in the dead of winter with a single legion of soldiers. He knew that by marching on Rome he would start a civil war. What he didn't know─and couldn't have known─was that this war would last for nearly two decades and destroy the Republic.
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お願いします (10) The Triumvirate was a political deal. Each member gained something from it. Crassus had arranged for his wealthy friends to collect taxes in the provinces─Rome's possessions beyond the Italian peninsula. This was a profitable position because tax collectors kept some of the money for themselves. Joining the alliance of power let Crassus protect these moneymaking deals. Pompey joined to make sure that his soldiers stayed loyal to him. As a member of the Triumvirate, he could guarantee that they would be rewarded for their service. (11) Caesar got what he wanted, too. He not only became consul, but the next year he became governor of Gaul (France), a province about the size of Texas. There, Caesar established himself as a major power. He spent almost ten years conquering Gaul, pitting his loyal, well-trained army against the Gatuls, who were mostly independent tribes fighting among themselves. Beginning in 58 BCE, Caesar and his troops moved through the region and overcame it, bit by bit. In the process, Rome built roads, captured over a million prisoners, and took huge amounts of money and treasure from the native people. (12) Caesar's success in Gaul made him rich and even more ambitious. This worried his rivals and enemies in Rome. They knew that he favored the Gracchi Brothers' plan for taking land from the rich and giving it to the poor. This made him even less popular with the aristocrats.
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お願いします (1)“When I was 18 years old…I raised an army and used it to bring freedom back to the Roman state. I spent my own money to do it…. Because of this, the Senate passed a special resolution to make me a senator.” These words were written by Julius Caesar's great-nephew: the first person to serve as a Roman general and member of the Senate while he was still a teenager. (2) Julius Caesar, who had no legitimate sons of his own, was especially fond of his sister's grandson, Gaius Octavius. When his sister Julia died, the dictator chose 12-year-old Octavius to deliver his grandmother's funeral oration. Five years later, in 46 BCE, Octavius rode with his great-uncle in his triumphal procession into Rome. The next year, the young man joined Caesar's military campaign in Spain. The dictator believed that someday his great-nephew would do great things for Rome. (3) After his victories in Spain, Caesar planned a war against the rebellious tribes of Illyria, a region across the Adriatic Sea. Putting young Octavius in charge, he sent the army to Illyria with instructions to wait for him there. Then Caesar returned to Rome to begin reforming the government─a big job. Caesar set to work with energy and determination. But his plans were foiled by the daggers of his enemies, when he was assassinated on the Idea of March. (4) Eighteen- year-old Octavius was in Illyria when he got news of his uncle's death. He made up his mind to return to Rome. While he was packing to leave, a second messenger came with the surprising news that, in his will, Caesar had adopted Octavius as his son and made him the heir to an enormous fortune. This news was sure to raise eyebrows─and perhaps some swords─in Rome.
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お願いします (1) Everyone in first-century BCE Rome knew Marcus Tullius Cicero's name. He served as a consul―Rome's top office―and his fiery speeches drew crowds of listeners. When Cato the Younger, the great grandson of Cato the Censor, called Cicero“the father of his country,”everyone cheered. Yet Cicero's letters show that he sometimes couldn't decide what to do. And he worried a lot about his children. When his daughter Tullia died, he was heartbroken. He wrote to his best friend, Atticus, about his sadness: I have isolated myself, in this lonely region.... In the morning, I hide myself in the dense...forest and don't come out until night.... My only form of communication now is through books, but even my reading is interrupted by fits of crying. (2) Cicero wrote hundreds, maybe thousands, of letters. Amazingly, 900 of them have survived, more than 2,000 years later. They include letters to his friends and to other politicians, in addition to those that he wrote to his brother and his unruly, playboy son. In them, we learn about family problems, deaths, and divorces―not to mention his opinions on almost everything. (3) Like many grown-ups, Cicero liked to give advice, and his letters are generously sprinkled with hints, warnings, and words of wisdom. He was often pompous, even conceited, but he showed his feelings in his writing, even when his honesty made him seem weak or afraid. (4) Some of Cicero's letters report on the latest happenings in Rome. His words give us the best picture we have of life in the 1st century BCE. He wrote about simple things: the weather, gladiatorial games, and the price of bread. But he also described wars, riots, scandals, and the plots of scheming politicians.
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お願いします (18) A few years later Cicero landed in trouble once again. By this time, all three members of the Triumvirate were dead, and Mark Antony held the reins of power in Rome. Cicero, outspoken as usual and still fighting to save the Republic, delivered passionate speeches against Antony. He spoke, privately and publicly, against him. He begged Antony to put the good of the Republic above his own desires. He used his own record to try to convince Antony: ”I defended the Republic as a young man. I will not abandon it now that I am old .... Nor will I tremble before your sword. No, I would cheerfully offer myself to its blade, if the liberty of the city could be restored by my death.” (19) Mark Antony was not impressed by Cicero's brave, unselfish words. Instead, Antony convinced his ally, Caesar's great-nephew Octavian, that Cicero was a threat and should be killed. Antony's soldiers tracked down the aging orator at his seaside villa and murdered him. Then, in an act of terrible cruelty, the general gave orders for Cicero's head and hands to be cut off and displayed in the Forum where he had so often spoken. (20) Cicero's voice was silenced, and yet his writings remained. He is honored today as a man of genius and a master of words. He was both. Perhaps he was in the right place at the wrong time. Generals, not orators, ruled Rome in the 1st century BCE.
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